LIBRARY OF C0NGRES3,^ 



Shelf..K.A76 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



KEENEY'S 

COMPENDIUM 



OP 



ANCIENT AND MODERN 
HISTORY. 

For the Use of Schools. 

Corrject^b, Cnlargeb, anb brought bcfett to 1880,. 

\ ^ ^y By JOHN O'KANE MUREAY, M.A., M.IX-r^F CoSf^ 

°^ WASHING 



" History is a record of truth for the instruction of mankind."— J5?atr. 
" To be ignorant of what has happened before one's birth, is nothing less than 
to remain in a state of continual childhood."— C^'cero. 



BALTIMORE: 

John Murphy & Co. 

1882/ 



THE LIBRARY 
OF CONGRESS 

WASHINGTON 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1882, by 

JOHN MUEPHY & CO., 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



^M^ 



Press of John Murphy & Co., Baltimore. 



EDITOE'S PREFACE. 



I UNDERTOOK the task of preparing this new edition of 
Kerney's well-known Compendium of Ancient and Modern 
History at the earnest request of my friend, the late Mr. John 
Murphy, founder of the publishing house of John Murphy & Co. 

I have carefully gone over the whole volume, making such 
changes, corrections, and additions as I deemed necessary. 
Many portions have been entirely re-written. The history of 
most of the modern nations had to be carried down from 1820, 
1830, or 1840, to 1880. The sketch of the Cathohc Church was 
continued from the so-called Reformation till 1880. Over a 
dozen new lives have been added to the Short Biographies. I 
have written most of the notes scattered here and there, and 
the initial of my name is placed after the longer ones. Care 
has been taken to accent all proper names that are liable to be 
mis-pronounced. While the original plan of the work is sub- 
stantially preserved, I have attempted to give it more unity, 
system, and completeness. The division into books and chap- 
ters is one of the new features. 

History must find a place in every well-regulated course of 
instruction. It is one of the most valuable branches of knowl- 
edge, and no student can ever regret the time and labor spent in 
its study. The Compendium^ in its improved form, is now oifered 
to teachers, professors, parents, and all who take an interest in 
sound education as a truthful, pleasant, and impartial guide in 
a department of learning where safe guidance is all-important. 
I think it can fairly claim to be the most complete summary, 
in one handy volume, of ancient and modern history in the 
English language. 

John O'Kane Murray. 

Beoozlyn, N. Y. 
June 7, 1882. 

iii 



CONTEISTTS. 



Book I. 

Introduction.— The Sources and Divisions of History 1 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 

SACREn BISTORT, 

CHAP. 

I.— The Creation of the World— The Creation of Man— The Deluge 

—The Tower of Babel— The Dispersion of Mankind 4 

n.— The Early History of the Jews, until their Deliverance from Egypt 9 
III.— The Government of the Judges— The Regal Government— The 

Restoration of the Jews from Captivity 16 

IV.— From the Restoration of the Jews to their Native Country to the 

Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans 33 

Book II. — The Great Empires of Antiquity. 

I.— A Glance at Assyria and Babylon 31 

II —The Persian Empire 35 

III— The Phoenicians 38 

IV.— Egypt 39 

v.— Manners and Customs of the Egyptians 43 

VI.— Pyramids, Labyrinth, Lake of Moeris 44 

Book III. — Greece. 

I.— Glances at Early Greek History 47 

II.— The Fabulous and Heroic Ages 49 

III.— Republic of Sparta 51 

IV.— Republic of Athens 53 

v.— From the Invasion of Greece by the Persians, to the Pelopon- 

nesian War 55 

VI.— From the beginning of the Peloponnesian War to the Reign of 

Philip of Macedon 61 

VII,— Philip of Macedon— The Exploits and Death of Alexander 66 

Vin.— From the Death of Alexander to the Subjugation of Greece by 

the Romans 71 

IX.— Grecian Antiquities 74 

Philosophy 74 

Seven Wise Men 76 

Council of the Amphictyons 76 

Public Games 76 

Literature '• 77 

Arts 78 

Private and Domestic Life 79 

Origin of Tragedy • - 80 

1* V 



vi CONTENTS. 

Book IV.— Rome. paob 

CHAP. 

I.-From the Foundation of ihe City to the Expulsion of Tarquln 82 

II.-From the Abolition of the Regal Power to the First Punic War... 87 

in.— From the First Punic War to the Conquest of Greece 97 

IV.-The Sedition of the Gracchi-Civil Wars-Conspiracy of Catihne.. 104 
V —From the First Triumvirate to the Dissolution of the Common- 
wealth ]f 

VI.— Rome as an Empire ^J° 

VII —From Nerva to Constantino the Great i^ 

VIII -From the Accession of Constantino to the FaU of the Western 

Empire ^ 

IX.— Roman Antiquities JX^ 

X.— Mythology of Ancient Nations ^^ 

MODEKN HISTORY. 

Book v.— The Middle Ages. 

I.— Sixth Century }^ 

Seventh Century f^ 

Eighth Century ^ 

Ninth Century J^J 

Tenth Century J^ 

Eleventh Century |?* 

Twelfth Century }^ 

Thirteenth Century 1?J 

Fourteenth Century > ^^^ 

Monasteries r^ 

n.— The Saracen Empire ^^^ 

in.— The Feudal System TZ 

IV.— The Crusades ^Z 

First Crusade Jrx 

Second Crusade :Jq 

Third Crusade ^.^t. 

Fourth and Fifth Crusades :[*'* 

Sixth Crusade ]lt 

Seventh and Eighth Crusades :J^^ 

The Results of the Crusades :J'° 

V.-Chivalry tZ 

Tournaments and Jousts 

The Origin of Duels ^^ 

Book VI.— France, t 

I.-Foundation of the Monarchy-Merovingian and Carlovingian 

.,_,. loD 

Kings jgg 

IL— Capetian Kings ^^2 

III.— Branch of Valois """ "'" ,„^ 

IV.-From the Accession of Louis xn. to the Reign of Henry III.- 19b 

V.-House of Bourbon, from Henry IV. to the Death of Louis XV M. 

VI.— Louis XVL and his Misfortunes f^° 

Vn.— Bonaparte and his Wonderful Career f^ 

VIIL-Louis XVin., Charles X., and Louis Philippe........ - •••••••••• ^^ 

lX.-The New Republic soon succeeded by the Second Empire-Reign 

and Downfall of Napoleon III.-Glance at the Present French ^ 
Republic - *••• •*" 



CONTENTS. Vn 

^ook VIL-England. 

I.— From the Conquest by the Romans, B.C. 55, to A. D. 837 235 

II.— The Foundation of the Monarchy 239 

JIl.— Norman Family ; William the Conqueror— William II.— Henry 

I.— Stephen of Blois 245 

IV.— Family of Plantagenet ; Henry II.— Richard I.— John— Henry III. 

—Edward I.— Edward II.— Edward III.— Richard II • 247 

Y.— Branch of Lancaster; Henry IV.— Henry V.— Henry VI 259 

YI— Branch of York; Edward IV.— Edward V.— Richard III 2tj3 

YII.— Tudor Family ; Henry VII.— Henry VIII.— Edward VI.— Mary- 
Elizabeth 265 

YUl.— Stuart Family ; James I.— Charles I.— The Commonwealth— Crom- 
well — Charles II.— James II.— William and Mary — Anne 275 

IX..— Branch of Brunswick; George I.— George II.— George III.— George 

IV.— William IV 288 

X.— The Reign of Queen Victoria 293 

Book VIII.— Scotland. 

I.-Early History 298 

U— House of StuaH 301 

IIL- Mary Queen of Scots 307 

Book IX. — Ireland. 

I. — Ancient Pagan Ireland 316 

II.— Early Christian Ireland 319 

III.— From the Invasion of Henry II. to the Invasion of Cromwell 323 

IV.— From James II. till the Rebellion of 1798 333 

v.— From the Rebellion of 1798 till 1880 337 

Book X.— Spain. 

I.— Its Early History 345 

II.— Modern Spain 346 

III.— The Inquisition 350 

Book XI.— Italy. 

I.— From the Fall of the Empire of the West to the Death of Pope 

Gregory VII 354 

II.— From the Death of Pope Gregory VII. to the Present Time 359 

Book XII. — Germany and Austria. 

I.— From the Earliest Period to the Accession of the House of Haps- 

burg 367 

XL- A Glance at the History of Six Hundred Years 369 

Book XIII. — Prussia. 

I.— Early History to the Conclusion of the Reign of Frederick the 

Great 373 

n.— From the Death of Frederick the Great till the Present Time 375 

Book XIV. — Russia. 

I.— Early History 378 

II.— Russia in the Nineteenth Century 380 



Viii CONTENTS. 

CHAP. Book XV. PAOB 

I.— Portug-al 383 

II.— Poland '. 385 

III.— Sweden and Norway 387 

IV.— Denmark • 390 

v.— Holland and Belgium 393 

VI.— Switzerland 393 

VII.— Modern Greece 394 

VIIL— Turkey 403 

Book XVI. — America. 

I.— Discovery of the New "World 407 

II.— Conquest of Mexico and Peru 414 

The Manners and Customs of the Indians 417 

The Rise of the Republics of South America 419 

III.— Settlement of Canada, Virginia, and New York 421 

IV.— New England Settlements 427 

v.- Maryland and its Catholic Founders 435 

VI.— Pennsylvania 437 

Vn.— Delaware and New Jersey 438 

TheCarolinas 439 

Georgia ; 439 

VIIL— The French War and the Conquest of Canada • 440 

IX.— The Oppressive Measures that finally Led to the Declaration of 

Independence 444 

Book XVII. — The United States of America. 

L— The War of the Revolution 453 

n.— The Administrations of Washington and Adams 461 

III.— The Administration of Thomas Jefferson 466 

IV.— The Administration of James Madison 468 

v.— The Administrations of Monroe, Adams, Jackson, Van Buren, 

Harrison, and Tyler 475 

VL— Polk's Administration 477 

VIL— The Administrations of Taylor, Filmore, and Pierce 493 

VIIL— The Administrations of Buchanan and Lincoln— The Ci\il War.... 498 
IX.— The New National Life— Administrations of Johnson, Grant, 

Hayes, and Garfield 507 

Book XVIII.— The Catholic Church. 

I.— From the Birth of Christ to the Triumph of Christianity 510 

II.— From the Triumph of Christianity to the Protestant Reformation. 520 
III.— From the Protestant Reformation to the Present Time 530 

Book XIX. 

Short BiOGRAPHiCAii Sketches of Eminent Personages 541 

CHRONOLOGICAIi TABLE 564 



Appendix. 



The Declaration of Independence 583 

The Constitution of the United States 588 



COMPENDIUM 

OF 

ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY. 



BOOK I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE SOURCES AND DIVISIONS OF HISTORY. 

History is a written account of past events. It is a 
record of the lives of nations. 

The principal sources of history are : 

1. Authentic records, of which the Bible"^ is the most 
ancient and venerable. 

2. Oral tradition, which existed before the invention of 
the art of writing. From this source, Herod'otus, one of 
the earliest profane historians, derived the greater part of 
the facts which he relates. 

3. Historical poems, such as the IViad and Od'yssey of 
Homer, which comprised the only history of the heroic ages 
of Greece. 

4. iVIonuments and ruins, as the Pyramids of Egypt, and 
the remains of such ancient cities as Bal'bec, Babylon, Troy, 
Nin'eveh, Palmy 'ra, and Persep'olis, which serve to give an 
idea of the taste, power, and opulence of those by whom 
they were built. 

' * The Bible contains seventy-two books, forty-five of which belong 
to the Old Testament, and twenty-seven to the New Testament. 



1. What is history? Which is the first source of history? the second? 
the third? the fourth? 

1 



INTRODUCTION. 



5. Coins and medals have always been of great utility in 
illustrating history, and of giving some insight into the 
manners and customs of those nations to which they be- 

lonQ:ed. , , T n 

i Inscriptions on marbles.— The most celebrated collec- 
tion of marbles are those at the University of Oxford, 
England, called the Arundelian Marbles, from the Earl of 
Arundel, by whom they were brought from Greece. Of 
these inscriptions, the most important is the Chronicle of 
Pa'ros, which contains the chronology of Athens from the 
time of Ce'crops, b. c. 1582 to b. c. 264. 

1. History is divided, with respect to time, into Ancient 
and Modern. Ancient history embraces the history of the 
world from the creation of man to the birth of Christ. 
Modern history comprises all the time subsequent to that 
period. There is, however, a difference of opinion with re- 
gard to the line which separates ancient from modern his- 
tory. Some historians adopt the Christian era for the 
commencement of modern history; others take the sub- 
version of the Western Empire of the Romans, A. p. 476; 
while others again carry it down as far as the estabhshment 
of the New Empire of the West, under Charlemagne, a. d. 

8 Ancient history is distinguished by the creation and 
fall of Adam and Eve ; the Deluge ; the dispersion of man- 
kind ; and the formation of the four great Empires ot 
Assyria, Persia, Greece, and Rome, whicji in turn arose, 
flourished, and decayed. . , . , .. ^ ■ ^x. f 

9 Modern history is chiefly distinguished by the birth ot 
Christ ; the redemption of mankind ; the foundation of the 
Catholic Church ; the spread of Christianity ; the fall of the 
Roman Empire; the rise of the principal modern nations ot 
Europe ; the rise, progress, and decline of Mahometanism ; 
the establishment of the Feudal System; the Crusades; 
Chivalry ; the invention of gunpowder and the art ot print- 
ino- ; the discovery and settlement of America ; the revival 
of'^letters ; the so-called Reformation ; the invention of the 
steam-engine and the telegraph; and many advances and 

Which is the fifth source of history ? the sixth ? Where is the most 
celebrated collection of marbles? Which is the most important ot 
these, and what does it contain?-?. How is ^foiy divided? What 
is ancient history? What is modern history? What do some his- 
torians adopt as the dividing line between ancient and modern histoiy . 
-8. For what is ancient history distinguished ?-9. For whftt is modern 
history distinguished ? 



INTRODUCTION. 3 

improvements in the arts, sciences, and social condition of 
man. 

10 That period of time extending from the fall of the 
Western Empire of the Romans, a. d. 416, to that of the 
Eastern Empire, a. d. 1453, is often styled the Middle Ages. 

11. History is divided, with respect to the nature of its 
subjects, into Sacred, Profane, Ecclesiastical, and Civil. 

12. Sacred history is that which is contained in the Holy 
Scriptures. 

13. Profane history is the history of the ancient pagan 
nations. The earliest profane historian is Herodotus, who 
is styled the Father of History. He compiled his works 
about 445 years b. c, and extends his accounts back as far 
as the year 713 before the Christian era. 

14. Ecclesiastical history is the history of the Church of 
Christ, from the establishment of Christianity to the present 
time. 

15. Civil history is the history of the principal nations, 
states, empires, and republics that have appeared in the 
world. 

For a period of nearly three thousand three hundred years 
subsequent to the creation of man, there exist no documents, 
with the exception of the Scriptures, that really deserve the 
name of history. Our knowledge, therefore, of the early 
history of the world, the first settlements of the different 
parts of it, and the primitive state of society, is extremely 
limited. 

10. Over what period of time do the Middle Ages extend? — 11. Name 
the other divisions of history? — 12. What is sacred history? — 13. Pro- 
fane history? Who is the earliest profane historian? — 14. What is 
ecclesiastical history ? — 15. Civil history ? 



AKCIENT HISTOEY. 



LESSONS IN SACRED HISTORY. 
CHAPTER I. 

THE CREATION OF THE WORLD— THE CREATION OF MAN 
— THE DELUGE- THE TOWER OF BABEL— THE DISPER- 
SION OF MANKIND. 

THE history of the world begins with the first act of the 
creation, when, in the words of Moses, the most ancient 
of the sacred writers, '' God created heaven and earth," He 
called the universe into existence by an act of His almighty 
power. This wonderful work, according to Holy Scripture, 
occupied six days ; but it is generally believed that the days 
of the Creation were periods of great length. We have 
good reason to think that the earth existed long ages before 
the creation of Adam.* But v^^hen the world was clothed 
in beauty, God said: "Let us make man to Our image and 
likeness." Adam was formed from the slime of the earth, f 
and the adorable Creator ''breathed into his face the breath 
of life, and man became a living soul." This extraordinary 
event took place nearly 6000 years ago. The Almighty gave 
man dominion over the earth and every creature on it ; and, 
finally, seeing that all His work was good, rested on the 
seventh day, which He sanctified as a day to be devoted to 
religious solemnities. 

2. The first woman was formed from a rib, taken from the 
side of Adam while in a deep sleep; and she was given to 
him as a companion. In this manner was the sacred in- 

* See Molloy's Geology and Revelation. 

f Adam signifies earth-man, or dravrafrom the earth. 

Sacred History. Chapter T. — 1. When does the history of the 
world begin ? What is said of the six days of the creation ? Eelate 
how God created the first man. About how many years ago is it since 
this event occurred ? What did God do on the seventh day ? — 2. From 
what was the first woman formed ? 

4 



THE ANTEDILUVIANS. 5 

stitution of marriage ordained by the Creator himself. Adam 
and Eve* were placed, immediately after their creation, in a 
terrestrial paradise, called the Garden of Eden. They were 
permitted to use all the fruits of that lovely abode, except the 
fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil ; this restric- 
tion was laid upon them as a trial of their obedience, and the 
penalty of death was threatened if they should transgress the 
command of their Creator. 

3. Yarious opinions have been entertained with respect to 
the situation of the Garden of Eden ; but following the ac- 
count given of it in the Old Testament, and judging from 
the well known names of the Ti'gris and Euphra'tes, we 
may determine, with some probability, that it was situated 
in or near Mesopota'mia. It is evident that it was east of 
Ca'naan, or of the wilderness where Moses wrote his sacred 
history, though the precise spot cannot now be ascertained. 

4. The innocence and happiness of our first parents were 
of short duration. Scarcely had they begun to enjoy the de- 
lights of paradise, when the woman, deceived by the subtlety 
of Satan, in the form of a serpent, plucked and eat of the for- 
bidden fruit, and at the same time presented it to her hus- 
band, who likewise followed her example. The efiect was 
decisive. The whole face of creation was changed. Death 
and sin were introduced, and from that moment our first 
parents, with all their posterity, became liable to dissolution, 
and subjected to all the moral and physical evils which have 
afflicted the human family to the present time. God called 
them to an account, and his awful voice filled their souls 
with dread. 

5. Adam being severely reprimanded for his disobedience, 
began to exculpate himself upon the weak pretence that the 
woman had first offered him the fruit. The woman hearing 
herself thus accused, sought to remove the blame from her- 
self upon the serpent, that had deceived her. But in a for- 
mal violation of his solemn commands, God admits of no ex- 
cuse. He cursed the serpent as the first author of the sin, 
condemning it to creep upon the earth, and eat the dust 

* Eve signifies life, or the mother of the living. 



What were the names of the first of the human family ? and where 
were they placed? What were they permitted to use? Why was this 
restriction laid upon them? — 3. Where is the supposed situation of 
the garden of Eden ? — 4. What is said of the innocence of our first 
parents ? How was the woman deceived ? and what was the effect of 
their disobedience ? — 5. What sentence was pronounced on the serpent ? 
1* 



6 THE ANTEDILUVIANS. 

thereof; but for fear that man should despair under the 
weight of his afflictions, He promised him a future deliverer, 
declaring that the seed of the woman would eventually 
crush the serpent's head, — a declaration which referred, 
in its full extent, to the person of Jesus Christ, the Savior 
of mankind. Adam and Eve were then banished from para- 
dise, and an angel with a flaming sword placed at the east 
of the garden, to prevent all access to that once happy 
abode. 

6. In the first year of the companionship of Adam and 
Eve, 4004 years b. c, Cain was born, and the following 
year is assigned for the birth of Ahel. The two brothers 
not only followed different occupations, but possessed very 
different characters. On a certain occasion, as they were 
both presenting their offerings to God, the offering of Ahel 
was accepted, while that of Cain was rejected. This circum- 
stance excited the indignation of Cain, who, availing him- 
self of the opportunity as they w^ere alone in the field, rose 
up against his brother and murdered him. On account of 
this unnatural crime, Cain was immediately punished. God 
called him to a solemn reckoning, and after hearing with bit- 
ter anguish his doom pronounced, that he should be a fugi- 
tive and a vagabond on earth, we are told that he went out 
from the presence of the Lord, and dwelt in the land of JN'od, 
east of Eden. 

t. After a brief account of Cain and his family, the sacred 
historian presents us with a short but interesting account of 
Enoch, who is said to have walked with God for the space of 
three hundred years, and, at the expiration of that time, to 
have been taken up to heaven without passing through the 
scene of death. The genealogy of the human family is car- 
ried down to the time of Noah* and his sous, and the date 
of the life of each of the patriarchs is minutely given. The 
descendants of Seth at first continued pure and uncorrupt ; 
at length, however, by intermarriage with the descendants 
of Cain, they became like the rest of mankind — exceedingly 
degenerate. 

8. The Almighty, justly provoked by the enormous de- 
generacy of his creatures, determined to destroy, by a uni- 

* This name is also written Noe. 

What promise was made to man? What then became of Adam and 
Eve ? — 6. When was Cain born ? When was Abel born ? and what is 
related of the two brothers? — 7. What is said of Enoch? and the de- 
scendants of Cain ? — 8. What did the Deity determine to do ? 



THE DELUGE. 7 

versal Deluge, the race of man, together with the whole 
animal creation, except a small remnant destined again to 
repeople the earth. From this awful sentence which God 
had pronounced, Noah and his family, eight in number, were 
the only persons who were exempted. Connected with this 
intimation which Noah had received concerning the ap- 
proaching deluge, w^ere several particular instructions rela- 
tive to his deliverance. He was ordered to build a large 
vessel, called the Ark, according to the divine directions. 

9. The Ark was built of gopher wood, which is supposed to 
be the same as the cypress. Its form was that of an oblong 
square, with a flat bottom and a sloping roof, elevated one 
cubit in the middle ; it consisted of three stories, and was 
d'ivided into separate apartments.* When completed, Noah 
entered the Ark, together with his wife, his three sons and 
their wives, taking with him every species of beasts, birds, 
and reptiles, by pairs and by sevens, according to the divine 
command. Immediately after this, the fountains of the deep 
were broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened ; 
during forty days and forty nights, without intermission, the 
waters were poured upon the surface of the globe. In the 
mean time, the Ark rose with the rising flood, and rode tri- 
umphant over the raging water, which soon buried beneath 
its swelling waves all living creatures, without distinction. 

10. When the waters began to subside, the Ark rested on 
the top of Mount A'rai^at, in Arme'nia, and after it had re- 
mained there for four months, Noah being anxious to know 
whether they had disappeared from the earth, opened the 
window of the ark, and sent forth a crow, which did not 
return ; after this he sent forth a dove, which, not finding a 
place on which to rest its feet, again returned to the Ark. 
At the end of seven days, however, the dove was sent out a 
second time, and in the evening returned bearing in its beak 
a green olive branch, which iVba/?- joyfully received, not only 
as a proof that the flood had abated, but likewise as a sign 
that Grod was reconciled with the world. 

11. By the command of God, Noah then went out of the 
Ark with his family, taking with him all the living creatures, 
after they had been shut up for the space of a year, and im- 

* The Ark was about 547 feet long, 92 feet wide, and 54 feet high. 

Who was exempted from the sentence ? — 9. Describe the ark. 
When completed, what did Noah do ? How long did the waters con- 
tinue to fall? — 10. Where did the ark rest? What is said of the crow 
and the dove? — 11. What did Noah now do? 



8 THETOWEROFBABEL. 

mediately afterwards he built an altar, and ofifered sacrifice 
to the almighty creator of heaven and earth. God blessed 
Noah and his sons, and made a covenant with him, engag- 
ing no more to destroy the earth with a flood, in confirmation 
of which he set his bow in the heavens.. Shortly after this 
period, Noah engaged in pursuits of husbandry, and, having 
been intoxicated with the juice of the grape, was discovered 
in this situation by his youngest son Ham,"^ who with inde- 
cent levity informed his brothers of the circumstance ; they, 
however, treated their father with the highest degree of 
filial respect. 

Noah, as soon as he awoke, being informed of all that had 
passed, condemned the action of Ham, pronounced a curse 
upon his posterity, declaring that they should be the slaves 
to the slaves of his brethren, while at the same time he highly 
commended the piety of Shem and Japhet.f 

12. The descendants of Noah soon became very numerous 
in the vicinity of Mount Ararat, where they first settled 
after the Deluge, and finding the place too small, they began 
to think of extending their territories, and of making new 
settlements in different parts of the globe. Before their 
separation, they proposed leaving some monument behind 
them that might make their memory famous in after ages. 
With this view they undertook to build a city, and in it 
to erect a tower, the top of which might reach to heaven. 
Their intention was not merely to signalize their name, but 
also to provide themselves with a place of security against 
any future Deluge that might happen. At this time all 
mankind spoke the same language, and thereby more effect- 
ually encouraged each other in their impious undertaking. 
God being offended at their presumption, resolved to stop 
the progress of their labor. By a stroke of his divine power, 
they all in a moment lost their uniformity of language, | and 
were surprised to hear nothing but a confused and discordant 
sound of words, which no one could understand. The tumult 

* Also written Cham. 

t Also written Sem and Japheth. 

X " There is sufficient connection between all the languages on the face 
of the earth to show that they had a common origin." — Br. Azarias, 
Essay on a Philosophy of Literature. 

What promise did God make ? In what did Noah engage ? What 
happened to him? What sentence did he pronounce on Ham? — 12. 
What is said of the descendants of Noah ? AVhat did they undertake ? 
What did God do? What ensued? Where did the descendants of the 
sons of Noah settle ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 9 

and disorder that ensued, caused them to desist from their 
design, and the tower which they had begun was, on that 
account, called the Tower of Babel, which signifies confu- 
sion. 

After this event, mankind separated and dispersed into 
different nations. The descendants of Shem are said to have 
settled in the south of Asia ; those of Ham in Syria, Arabia, 
and Africa, while the posterity of Japhet peopled the west 
of Asia, and nearly all Europe.* 



CHAPTER II. 



THE EARL Y HISTOR Y OF THE JEWS, UNTIL THEIR DELIVER. 
ANCE FR OM EG YPT. 

THE Jews, commonly called the people of God, derive their 
origin from Abraham, the son of Ze'ra, the tenth in lineal 
descent from Shem, the son of Noah. The call of Abraham 
is a remarkable event in history, and took place 1921 years 
before the Christian era. This illustrious man intended to 
settle in Haran, but in obedience to the will of God he re- 
moved to the land of Canaan, vv^hich was appointed to be 
the inheritance of his posterity. After his arrival there, his 
first care was to erect an altar for the worship of God, who 
appeared to him and confirmed the promise, which he had 
before made, of giving the country to his children. When 
he had lived some time in Canaan, a famine compelled him 
to remove his family into Egypt, where he resided until the 
famine ceased, and then again returned. 

2. Shortly after this time happened the remarkable visitation 
of the divine wrath on Sod'om and several other cities. The 
crimes of these cities cried aloud to heaven for vengeance ; 
and three angels, in the form of young men, were sent 

■*A remarkable change in the duration of human life took place 
during this age of the world. Before the Deluge men lived to a very 
advanced age. Adam lived 900 years ; .Tared, 962 years ; Mathusalem, 
989 years ; and Noah, 950 years. But after that great catastrophe tlie 
life of man was so reduced that David, in the eighty-ninth psalm, says, 
" The days of our years are threescore and ten." 

Chapter II. — 1. What is said of the .Jews? When was the call of 
Abraham? Where did he settle? Where did he remove with his 
family ? — 2. After this time what happened ? 



10 SACRED HISTORY. 

to destroy them. Abraham having entertained the heavenly 
visitors in his tent, accompanied them on their way to Sodom, 
and obtained from them, that Lot and his family should be 
spared. Lot was therefore admonished to depart with his 
wife and his two daughters, and they were ordered not to 
look upon the city. But scarcely had he reached a place of 
safet}^, when Sodom and Gomor'rah, with two other cities, 
were consumed by fire that fell from heaven, leaving the site 
on which they stood, and the country in the vicinity, a lake, 
called at the present time the Dead Sea, the water of which 
is clear and heavy, but extremely nauseous and bitter to the 
taste. When the noise of the falling fire Avas heard, Lot's 
wife, forgetful of the injunction of the angels, looked back 
upon the city ; but her curiosity was punished on the spot. 
She was changed into a pillar of salt, to serve as a warning 
to those who, at any time, cast back a wishful glance on the 
sinful objects which they have once forsaken. 

3. Sa'rah, the wife of Abraham, when far advanced in 
years, bore him a son, who was called Isaac. When Isaac 
had grown up, God, to try the faith of Abraham, commanded 
him to offer his son in sacrifice on a mountain which he 
should point out to him. The holy patriarch obeyed without 
hesitation, but at the moment when his hand was raised to 
strike the victim, an angel was sent to stop his arm, and to 
assure him that God was satisfied with the readiness of his 
obedience. Isaac was afterwards married to Rebec' ca, the 
mother of E'sau and Jacob. Jacob, by the command of the 
Lord, took the name Isra'el, hence his posterity were called 
Israelites, or children of Israel. 

4. Jacob had twelve sons, of whom Joseph was particu- 
larly loved by his father, and on that account hated by the 
rest of his brothers. On a certain occasion, as they were 
tending their flocks, at some distance from home, Joseph was 
sent by his father to see how they conducted themselves ; 
they immediately seized and sold him as a slave to some 
Ish'maelite merchants, and told his father that he had been 
devoured by wild beasts. The merchants carried him into 
Egypt, and sold him to Pot'iphar, an officer of the court. 
Joseph served Potiphar with so much fidelity, that he soon 

What is said of Abraham? Who was admonished to depart ? What 
is the site on which it stood now called ? What is related of Lot's wife? 
— 3. When Isaac had grown up, what did God command? What did the 
holy patriarch do ? Whom did Isaac marry ? — 4. How many sons had 
Jacob ? On a certain occasion, what took place ? W^here was Joseph 
carried ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 11 

committed to him the care of his household. The wife of 
Potiphar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph to the com- 
mission of a shameful crime, but the virtuous youth rejected 
her proposals with disdain. Incensed at this, however, the 
malicious woman accused him of an attempt against her 
honor. On this false accusation Joseph was thrown into 
prison, where he languished for several years. 

5. At length Pha'raoh, the king of Egypt, had two dreams 
that greatly perplexed him, and he could find no one in Egypt 
able to interpret them. Finally he was informed of a He- 
brew servant, then in prison, who had wisely interpreted the 
dreams of two of his officers ; this was Joseph, who, on 
being introduced to the king, explained his dreams, and told 
him. that they predicted an abundant product of the earth 
for seven years, and afterwards a famine for the same space 
of time. Upon this he was not only released from prison, 
but appointed to administer the affairs of Egypt under 
Pharaoh. 

6. During the famine which followed, all his brothers, with 
the exception of Benjamin, went into Egypt for the purpose 
of buying provisions. Joseph knew them, but he was un- 
known to them ; he therefore asked them, as if strangers to 
him, from whence they had come, and whether they were 
spies. They answered him with profound respect, that they 
had come into Egypt with the honest intention of buying 
corn ; that they were twelve brothers ; that one of them no 
longer existed, and that the youngest, called Benjamin, was 
left at home with his father Jacob in Canaan. The name 
of Benjamin touched the inmost feeling of Joseph's breast. 
He therefore determined to have him brought into Egypt. 
For this purpose he seemed to give no credit to their words, 
and said that, to assure himself of the truth of their account, 
one of them should remain as a hostage until their younger 
brother should be brought into Egypt. Therefore retaining 
Sim'eon, the rest were permitted to depart. 

7. Upon their return hom.e, they informed their father of 
all that had passed, and particularly of the engagement they 
were under of taking Benjamin into Egypt, where Simeon 
was detained as a pledge of their promise. Nothing could 

What is said of the wife of Potiphar ? What happened to Joseph ? 
— 5. What is said of Pharaoh ? Of what was he informed ? What 
did Joseph tell him? — 6. During the famine, what took place? 
What did Joseph ask them? How did the name of Benjamin affect 
Joseph? What method did he adopt to bring him into Egypt? — 7. 
What did they inform their father ? 



12 SACRED HISTORY. 

exceed the grief of the aged father on receiving this intel- 
ligence. He bemoaned his misfortunes. He spoke of his 
children, and became inconsolable at the thought of parting 
with the last and dearest of his sons. Joseph, said he, is 
no more, Simeon is in chains, and must Benjamin, also, be 
taken from me ? No, I will not consent ; to part with him 
would wring my very soul with grief, and carry my gray 
hairs in anguish to the grave. 

8. Jacob, however, at length consented to the departure of 
Benjamin, who accompanied his brothers on their return to 
Egypt. They were kindly received by Joseph, who finally 
made himself known to them in these words : '' I am Joseph ; 
does my father yet live ? " Struck silent with amazement, 
they were for some time unable to reply. Joseph wept and 
tenderly embraced them all ; but with greater feeling he 
threw himself upon the neck of Benjamin, and pressed him 
to his breast. He then told them to hasten to their father 
and let him know that his son Joseph was still alive, and to 
bring him down into Egypt. Jacob accordingly removed 
with all his family into Egypt, and Joseph assigned them a 
residence in the land of Goshen, a fertile district situated 
between the Nile and the Red Sea. 

9. Jacob lived seventeen years after his removal into 
Egypt. Upon being informed of his illness, Joseph, with 
filial piety, hastened to pay the last duties of affection to his 
dying father. The venerable patriarch raised himself in his 
bed at his son's approach, and spoke to him of the inherit- 
ance which Grod had promised to his seed in the land of 
Canaan, where he desired his remains to be removed after 
his death. He called his other sons around his bed, and gave 
to each a special blessing : the most memorable was that 
which he spoke of Judah,in which he expressly declared, 
that from his race the Messi'ah, the expected of all nations, 
should be born, and that this great event should take place 
at or near the time when the sovereign power should be 
entirely taken away from the Jewish nation. Jacob died in 
the one hundred and forty-seventh year of his age. 

10. Joseph, after the death of his father, continued to rule 
over Egypt until his own death, which occurred about the 



What is said of the aged father ? What did he say ?— 8. To what 
did Jacob at length consent ? In what words did Joseph make himself 
known ? What did he tell them ?— 9. How long did Jacob live ? What 
is said of Joseph? What did the patriarch do? What did he say of 
the Messiah ? — 10. What is now said of Joseph ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 13 

year 1635 B. c. In less than forty years after this event, a 
total change took place in the aifairs of Egypt ; a new King 
occupied the throne who knew not Joseph, and, forgetful of 
his administration, cruelly oppressed the Hebrew people. To 
check their increase and prosperity, the most rigorous meas- 
ures were adopted ; their lives were embittered by hard ser- 
vice at public works, and all their male children were ordered 
to be thrown into the river Nile. 

11. After much suffering, God raised up a deliverer of His 
chosen people, who should rescue them from a state of cruel 
servitude, and bring them out of the land of bondage. This 
deliverer was Mouses, the most distinguished personage of 
ancient times. In consequence of Pharaoh's inhuman de- 
cree, Moses was exposed by his mother on the banks 
of the Nile, and was found by the King's daughter, 
who compassionately adopted him, and thus saved his life. 
Before the obdurate heart of Pharaoh could be induced to 
consent to the departure of the Hebrews, a number of ex- 
traordinary and supernatural events took place, called the 
ten plagues of Egypt. The first of these plagues was the 
change of the waters of the Nile, and of all the wells of 
Egypt, into blood ; and by the last the whole land was cov- 
ered with darkness for three days. 

12. Pharaoh at length consented to allow Moses to con- 
duct the Israelites into the wilderness for three days, to per- 
form their religious duties. At the expiration of this time, 
finding that they did not return, he put himself at the 
head of his army and resolved to pursue them. Moses 
retreated until he came to the shore of the Red Sea, where, 
seeing the hosts of Egypt pressing forward, he extended his 
arm over the profound abyss, as God had commanded him. 
The waters suddenly divided and opened a passage to the 
opposite shore. The Israelites immediately entered the dry 
hollow of the deep, amazed at the watery bounds that stood 
suspended as walls upon their right and on their left. 

13. Pharaoh, insensible to the miracle, and thinking the 
passage as safe and as free for him as for the Israelites, en- 
tered precipitately after them, with all his army, and ad- 
vanced to the middle of the abyss before he became sensible 

Of the new king? To check their increase, what was adopted? — 11. 
What did God raise up ? Who was this deliverer ? What is related 
of Moses? What was the first and last plague of Egypt? — 12. To what 
did Pharaoh at length consent ? At the expiration of this time what did 
he do? What did Moses do? Where did the Israelites enter? — 
13. What is related of Pharaoh ? 
2 



14 SACRED HISTORY. 

of his danger. By this time Moses, who, with all his fol- 
lowers, had reached the other shore, stretched forth his hand 
again over the sea, and thus, hemmed in on every side, the 
magnificent hosts of Egypt perished in battling with the 
wild waters of the Red Sea.* 

14. The Israelites, after their deliverance from Egypt, 
wandered through the desert for forty years, during which 
time they received many signal proofs of the divine favor in 
their regard. They were supplied with food by manna, which 
fell regularly every morning, except on the Sabbath. On one 
occasion, when they were greatly in want of w^ater, Moses 
supplied them with that element, by striking a rock with 
his rod and causing a stream to issue from it. In the 
second year after their deliverance from Egypt, Moses num- 
bered the children of Israel, and found them to amount to 
six hundred and three thousand five hundred and fifty men, 
besides women and children. When they arrived at Mount 
Si'nai God gave them his divine law, amidst thunder and 
lightning. Moses was the only person allowed to ascend 
the mountain, and during his absence the ungrateful Israel- 
ites fell into idolatry, and worshipped a golden calf. 

15. Moses, after forty days and nights spent in this secret 
interview, received two tables of stone from God, who had 
engraved upon them, as the Scripture expresses it, with his 
own hand, the Ten Commandments. In these ten funda- 
mental precepts are contained an admirable summary of our 
various duties to God and to man. We are directed to 
adore but one God, the author of all blessings ; we are com- 
manded to reverence His holy name, and are reminded of the 
dreadful vengeance denounced against those w^ho shall trans- 
fer to idols, or to the creature, that worship which is due 
only to the Creator. To prevent the neglect of those sacred 
obligations, we are commanded to abstain from work one day 
in each week, that it may be more immediately devoted to 
the duties of religion. Four of the precepts of the Mosaic 

*Josephiis states that Pharaoh had six hundred war chariots, two 
hundred thousand infantry, and fifty thousand horsemen, all fully 
equipped. 

When Moses had reached the other shore, what did he do ? What 
happened to the Egyptian host ? — 14. What is said of the Israelites ? 
With what were they supplied ? On one occasion, what is related ? 
In the second year, what was the number found to be ? At Mount Si- 
nai, what was given ? What is said of Moses ? — 15. What did JNIoses 
receive ? In these, what are contained ? What are we directed, etc. ? 
To prevent, etc., what are we commanded ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 15 

code comprehend the principles of universal jurisprudence : 
*' Thou shalt not kill." '' Thou shalt not commit adultery." 
" Thou shalt not steal." '' Thou shalt not bear false wit- 
ness." These have formed the basis of criminal law in all 
civilized nations, and are essential to the good order of society. 

16. When Moses descended from the mountain, and found 
the people worshipping a golden calf, transported with holy 
indignation at the sight, he threw down the tables of the 
law, and broke them into pieces ; then seizing the idol he im- 
mediately broke it down and cast it into the fire ; and placing 
himself at the entrance of the camp, he proclaimed aloud that 
all those who still retained a sense of their duty to God 
should come forth and join him. The faithful tribe of Levi, 
having arranged themselves by his side, Moses ordered them 
to march through the camp and pat to death all who came 
in their way. The order was immediately executed, and 
above twenty thousand men were put to death, to expiate 
the guilt of those who remained. 

17. Moses, by the express command of God, having pre- 
pared two tables of stone, like those he had broken, went 
again to the summit of Sinai, where he received the same 
words engraved on them which had been engraved on the 
first. When he came down from the mountain and ap- 
proached the camp, the Israelites perceived a bright halo 
of glory which encircled his countenance, and made them 
afraid to approach him. Being told the cause of their dread, 
he covered his face with a veil, which he afterwards con- 
tinued to wear. Moses then caused the tabernacle to be 
built, which was a quadrangular tent, thirty cubits in length 
and nine in breadth. The inside of the tabernacle was hung 
with richly embroidered tapestry, and was divided into two 
parts by four pillars, before which was suspended a veil of 
the most exquisite needlework, variegated with the brightest 
coloring of purple and scarlet. The apartment enclosed be- 
hind the veil was called the Holy of Holies, and the space 
between the veil and the entrance was called the sanctuary. 
The tabernacle being finished, the Ark of the Covenant was 
made. It measured two cubits and a half in length, one and 
a half in breadth, and the same in height ; it was made of 

What do four of these precepts comprehend ? What are these four 
precepts? — 16. What is now said of Moses? What did he do with the 
idol ? What did Moses order them ? How many were put to death ? — 
17. What did Moses now do? When he came down, what is related of 
him ? What did he cause to he built ? Describe the tabernacle. The 
tabernacle beinsr finished, what was made? What did it measure? 



16 SACRED HISTORY. 

incorruptible wood, plated within and without with the 
purest gold, and covered with a lid, also of solid gold, 
which was called the mercy-seat. On the mercy-seat were 
placed two cherubs face to face, with their wings extended, 
so as to cover the ark. The ark, when finished, was placed 
in the tabernacle. 

18. About this time Moses sent twelve men to survey the 
land of Canaan; all, with the exception of Josh^ua"^ and 
Ca'leh, gave an unfavorable report, which caused the people 
to murmur. In consequence of this offence, God condemned 
all those who were twenty years of age, when they left 
Egypt, to die in the wilderness, except Joshua and Caleb. 

The earth opened and swallowed Ko'rali,-\ Da'than, and 
Ahi'ram,\ for heading a revolt against Moses ; at the same 
time fire descended and destroyed two hundred and fifty of 
those who had participated in their offence. Moses at length 
died at the age of one hundred and twenty years, on mount 
Ne'ho, in the land of Moab, having first taken a view of the 
Promised Land, which he was not permitted to enter. After 
the death of Moses, Joshua was acknowledged his successor 
in the supreme temporal command, who, having conquered 
the various nations that opposed him, and having sur- 
mounted innumerable obstacles, finally conducted the Israel- 
ites into the Land of Promise. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE GOVERNMENT OF THE JUDGES— THE REGAL GOVERN- 
ME NT— THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS FROM CAP- 
TIVITY. 

THE period during the government of the Judges was ex- 
tremely turbulent, and marked by an almost uninterrupted 
series of hostilities with their warlike neighbors. We are 

* Also written Josue. f Also written Core. 

X Also written Ahiron. 

On the mercy-seat what was placed ? — 18. At this time, what was done ? 
What was their report? In consequence of this, to what Avere they con- 
demned ? What is related of Korah ? At what age did Moses die, and 
where? After the death of Moses, what did Joshua, his successor, do? 

Chapter III. — 1. What sort of period occurred under the govern- 
ment of the judges ? 



SACRED HISTORY. l7 

not informed with certainty as to the manner of choosing 
the Judges, and what was the extent of their power. They 
appear to have been military chiefs for the command of tlie 
army, and some of them acquired a distinguished fame by 
their successful expeditions against the enemies of their 
country. The most distinguished of those who filled the 
office of judge were the two last, Eli and Samuel. Eli, who 
united in his person the duties of judge with the functions 
of high-priest, appears to have been incapable of discharging 
the obligations dependent on these two important offices. 
The people fell into idolatry, and, in punishment of their 
crimes, were subjugated by an ancient nation called the 
Philis'tines. In a great battle with the Philistines, the 
Hebrew army was defeated with dreadful slaughter, the 
two sons of Eli were slain, and the Ark of the Covenant 
fell into the hands of the enemy. At the news of this dis- 
aster, the venerable high-priest, Eli, now sightless with age, 
fell backward from his seat and expired on the spot. 

2. The next and last judge of the Hebrews was Samuel 
the Prophet, B.C. 1112. He brought back the people to a 
sense of their duty, and soon restored the fallen glory of 
Israel by a signal victory over the Philistines. Peace was 
restored, public virtue again flourished, and Samuel for 
twenty years governed the Hebrew nation with wisdom 
and prudence. When age had rendered him incapable of 
executing his laborious duties, he united his two sons with 
him in the administration of the government. But the con- 
duct of Samuel's sons, who inherited not the virtue of their 
father, gave offence to the IsraeMtes, and they desired to be 
governed by a king, like the other nations around them. 
Samuel at length yielded to their request, and privately 
anointed Saul, the son of Cis, of the tribe of Benjamin, 
King of Israel. Samuel then assembled the tribes, that they 
might elect a person to rule over them, and having cast their 
votes, the lot fell upon the very person of Saul. 

3. This event confirmed what had already passed in pri- 
vate, and indisputably proves that God presides over and 
directs the affairs of man. The name of Saul was imme- 
diately echoed through the tribes ; and, on being presented 

What do they appear to have been? Who were the most distin- 
guished ? What is said of Eli ? Into what did the people fall ? In a 
great battle, what took place ? At the news of this disaster, what hap- 
pened ? — 2, Who was the last judc^e ? What is said of him ? Why did 
the Israelites desire to be governed by a king ? Who was the first king? 
— 3. What is said of this event ? 

2* B 



18 SACRED HISTORY. 

before them, the whole multitude exclaimed, " God save the 
King!" This event took place after the government of the 
Judges had subsided, with some intermission, for three 
hundred and fifty -six years from the time of Joshua, b. c. 
1091. 

4. The beginning of the reign of Saul was auspicious, and 
distinguished by a complete victory over the Philistines, 
Amonites, and other nations. He was at length ordered by 
Almighty God, through the Prophet Samuel, to destroy the 
Am'alekites, an idolatrous and perfidious nation, the ever- 
declared enemies of the Hebrew people, and not to reserve 
the least thing that belonged to them. In obedience to this 
order, Saul put himself at the head of his army and marched 
against that hated people ; but far from complying with the 
letter of his instructions, he spared the life of their King, 
reserved the choicest of the flocks, and took to himself the 
most precious of the spoils. On account of this and other 
acts of disobedience, Samuel, on the part of God, declared 
to Saul that the kingdom of Israel should be taken from 
him and transferred to another. Accordingly Samuel, by 
the divine direction, privately anointed David King, and 
appointed him to succeed to the throne, which Saul had 
forfeited by his crimes. The whole reign of Saul was a 
continued series of foreign or domestic troubles ; being at 
length defeated in a war with the Philistines, he killed him- 
self by falling upon his own sword, after a reign of forty 
years, b. c. 1051. 

5. David, who had been anointed King by Samuel before 
the death of Saul, and held» his title by divine appointment, 
was therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. 
He found, however, a powerful rival in Ish^bosheth, the son 
of Saul, who founded his claim on the right of descent, and 
was supported by many of the tribes. A civil war ensued, 
which continued for seven years, and was finally terminated 
by the death of Ishbosheth. After this event all the tribes 
submitted to David, and the crown became hereditary in his 
family. 

6. The reign of David was brilliant and successful. He 
enlarged the bounds of his kingdom, took Jerusalem, which 

■^Vhat did the multitude exclaim? When did this take place? — 
4. What is said of the beginning of the reign of Saul ? What was he 
ordered ? What did he do ? On account of this, what did Samuel do ? 
Whom did he anoint as king? How did Saul die? — 5, What is said 
of David? What did he find? What ensued?— 6. What is said of 
the reign of David ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 19 

he made the capital of his dominions, and enriched himself 
and his subjects by the spoils of his enemies. He revived 
among the people an attachment for religion by the institu- 
tion of solemn ceremonies ; and he introduced a taste for 
the arts by inviting into the country able artists for the 
completion of the magnificent edifices which he erected. 
The latter part of his reign, however, was embittered by 
severe affliction. The kingdom was ravaged by pestilence, 
famine, and disastrous wars. His mind was harassed by 
domestic misfortunes. Some of his sons were disobedient 
and wicked. His favorite son, Ah'salorti, excited a rebellion 
against his father, with a design of dethroning him ; but he 
was defeated and slain. David caused his son Sol'omon to 
be crowned in the year 1011, before the Christian era, and 
died the following year, having reigned seven years and a 
half over Judah, and thirty-three years over all Israel. 

T. During the reign of Solomon the kingdom of Israel 
rose to a higher degree of prosperity, felicity, and glory than 
it enjoyed at any former or subsequent period. He directed 
the councils of all the petty states situated between the 
Euphrates and Mediterranean, and held the balance of 
power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and 
Assyria. Commerce was in a high degree flourishing ; the 
vessels of Israel, under the direction of Tyrian mariners, 
traded to the land of Ophir, which is supposed to be a dis- 
trict of Ethio'pia, on the eastern coast of Africa. By these 
lucrative voyages they augmented the wealth of the nation, 
which David had already enriched by the spoils of war. 
But at length this prosperity began to decline. Solomon, 
elated by the uniform success which attended his reign, set 
no bounds to his magnificence and luxury, and in order to 
support his profuse expenditure laid heavy taxes upon the 
people ; this finally alienated the affections of his subjects, 
and towards the close of his reign gave rise to a powerful 
faction, headed by a young man called Jerobo'am. 

8. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon 
was the building of a magnificent Temple at Jerusalem, 
which was completed in the space of seven years Two 
hundred and sixty thousand men were occupied in its erec- 

What did he do ? What is said of the latter part of his reign ? Of 
his favorite son Absalom? How long did he reign? — 7. During the 
reign of Solomon, what is said of the kingdom of Israel? What did 
he direct ? What is said of commerce ? What did Solomon do when 
elated by prosperity ? — 8. What was the most remarkable event of his 
reign? 



20 SACRED HISTORY. 

tion. The plan had been formed by David, and materials, 
workmen, and money provided for its erection. It was 
probably the most superb and costly structure of ancient 
times. 

The wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of 
Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are ascribed to him, either as the 
author or collector ; they abound with precepts and maxims 
applicable to every state and condition of life. But notwith- 
standing the superior wisdom for which Solomon has been 
so justly celebrated, he appears to have been immersed in 
sensual pleasures. He married no fewer than a thousand 
wives, seven hundred of whom held the rank and title of 
Queens. The pernicious power of these women, chosen for 
the most part from idolatrous nations, led him into effemi- 
nacy and neglect of his important duties to God and his 
people ; and their influence and superstitions at last drew 
him into idolatry. He died after an illustrious reign of 
forty years, leaving the world in doubt whether his memory 
be more worthy of praise or censure, and whether he died a 
friend or an enemy of his Creator, b. c. 971. 

9. With Solomon expired the grandeur and tranquillity 
of the Hebrews. Upon the accession of his son Behobo'am 
to the throne, the faction of Jeroboam broke out into open 
rebellion, and terminated in the revolt of the Ten Tribes 
from their allegiance to the house of David, leaving only 
the Two Tribes of Judah and Benjamin loyal to their lawful 
sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for their 
king, and the monarchy was thus divided into two separate 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 

10. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religious as well 
as a political separation. Being persuaded that should he 
permit his subjects to go into the kingdom of Judah, in order 
to perform the duties of religion in the temple at Jerusalem, 
they would by degrees lose their respect for his authorit}^ 
and perhaps return to the allegiance of their former sove- 
reign, he therefore ordered two new temples to be built, the 
one at Bethel and the other at Dan ; and in them two golden 
calves to be set up and divine honors impiously paid to them, 
as to the God who had conducted the children of Israel out 



What was it probably? What books are ascribed to him? In what 
does he appear to have been immersed ? How many wives had he ? 
Into what was he drawn? When did he die?— 9. On the accession of 
Eehoboam, what broke out? Whom did the revolted tribes elect? — 
10. What did the policy of Jeroboam produce? What did he order? 



SACRED HISTORY. 21 

of the land of Egypt. Jeroboam, after a turbulent reign of 
twenty-two years, finished a wicked life by an unhappy end. 
His name is never mentioned in Holy Scripture but with del 
testation, on account of his having set up the worship of 
idols, which was continued by all the Kings who succeeded 
to the throne of Israel, until an end was put to that kingdom 
by the Assyrians. 

11. After this memorable epoch, the history of the two 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah, for a period of almost four 
hundred years, exhibits a series of disunion, vice, wars, mas- 
sacres, servitude, and affliction from famine and pestilence. 
At length the kingdom of the Ten Tribes was extinguished! 
The people were transported into Assyria and dispersed into 
dilTerent parts of the country, from which they never returned. 
The 'few left in Canaan were intermixed with strangers, and 
from that mixture of different nations originated a race of 
people, who were afterwards known by the name of Samar'- 
itans. This event took place about 720 b. c, after the kino-- 
dom had subsisted two hundred and fifty-four years. * 

12. The tottering kingdom of Judah still continued to enjoy 
a precarious existence ; it was invaded at different times by 
the Babylonians. At length rendered tributary, and finally 
subjugated, its metropolis, the city of Jerusalem, was de- 
stroyed, the Temple was demolished by the order of the con- 
queror, Nebuchadnez'zar* ; all the principal inhabitants were 
stripped of everything valuable, and carried captives to 
Babylon. Thus ended the kingdom of Judah, after it had 
subsisted four hundred and sixty-eight years from the begin- 
ning of the reign of David, and three hundred and eighty- 
eight years after the separation of the Ten Tribes. 

13. The privation of liberty and the miseries of bonda^-e 
seem to have brought the Jewish people to a sense of their 
past transgressions. Unable to resist the power of man 
they now placed their sole confidence in the goodness and 
mercy of God, who heard their supplications and looked with 
compassion on their sufferings. Cy'rus, king of Persia 
having conquered Bab'ylon, published a decree by which the 
* Also written Nebtichadon^osor. 

Why is his name mentioned with detestation in the Scripture?— 
11. Alter this epoch, what does the history exhibit? What at length 
happened? What became of the people? When did this event take 
place .''—12. What is said of the kingdom of Judah? What at length 
happened to it ? What became of the inhabitants ? How long ha(f it 

wvf'f ^-iTT • ^""SJ®, *° ""^^^^^ ^^^ P^we^ of i^an, what did they do? 
What did Cyrus publish ? "^ 



22 SACRED HISTORY. 

Jewish people were set at liberty, and permitted to return 
to their native country, after they had languished in captivity 
for seventy years. The decree, moreover, allowed them to 
rebuild Jerusalem and their temple, of which Cyrus gave 
them a new plan, and ordered that the expense of erecting 
it should be paid out of the royal treasury. He also restored 
to them all the sacred vessels which had been brought to 
Babylon by Nehuchadnez' zar , when the Temple was de- 
stroyed. In consequence of this edict, about forty-two thou- 
sand of the Jewish people commenced their march toward 
their native country, where they arrived about five hundred 
and thirty-six years before the Christian era. From this 
period the Israelites, who returned from captivity, are prop- 
erly called Jews, because the Tribe of Judah was by far the 
most powerful after their restoration to liberty. 



CHAPTER IV. 



FROM THE RESTORATION OF THE JEWS TO THEIR NATIVE 
COUNTRY TO THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM BY THE 
ROMANS. 

MANY of the Jews remained at Babylon, while those who 
returned to Palestine began the work of rebuilding the 
Temple with vigor and alacrity. When it began to rise 
above the foundation, the young manifested their delight in 
tears of joy, whilst the ancients wept to see how far the out- 
lines of the new edifice fell short of the old. The progress 
of the work sufl'ered a temporary obstruction, through the in- 
trigues of their enemies and the caprice of Camby'ses, the 
successor of Cyrus. But in the beginning of the reign of 
Dari'us, the decree of Cyrus in favor of the Jews was ratified ; 
and that prince even contributed liberally towards the ex- 
pense, and in the sixth year of his reign the Temple was 
completed and dedicated with great solemnity. 

2. Paribus, during the remainder of his reign, continued 

What did the decree allow ? What did he restore ? In consequence 
of this edict, what was done? From this period, why are they called 
Jews ? 

Chapter IV. — 1. When the temple began to rise above its founda- 
tion, what is said of the young ? What did the progress of the work 
suffer ? In the beginning of the reign of Darius, what was done ? — 
2. What did Darius continue to do ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 23 

to manifest his favor for the Jews, and their privileges were 
confirmed by his son Xeroxes. Their interest was still greater 
with Artaxerxes, called Ahasue'rus in the Scripture, through 
the influence of his queen, Esther, a Jewess, and also through 
the services of her uncle, Mor'decai, who had discovered 
and frustrated a conspiracy against the king's life. From 
Artaxerxes, Ez'ra obtained liberal donations to be applied 
to the service of the Temple, and full power to govern the 
Jews ; and Nehemi'ah was afterwards commissioned to re- 
build the walls of Jerusalem, and to reform many abuses 
among the people, Ezra and Nehemiah seem to have been 
the two last Governors of Judah, which probably became 
subject to the Governor of Syria, from whom the high-priest 
derived his authority. 

3. From this period most of the calamities which befell 
the Jewish nation must be ascribed to the men who aspired 
to the sacerdotal dignity, through motives of ambition and 
avarice more than zeal for religion. For several centuries 
the office of High-priest was the chief object of ambition 
among the leading men of the state. The candidates pur- 
chased the office from the Assyrian governors, and retained 
it by means of money. Hence they oppressed the people 
with taxes that they might meet their pecuniary engage- 
ments, and the High-priest, Menela'us, sold some of the 
richest vessels belonging to the Temple. 

4. About the year 328 B.C., Alexan'der the Great, having 
besieged Tyre, was greatly incensed against the Jews, be- 
cause they had refused to supply his army with provisions 
during the siege. After the taking of Tyre he marched to 
Jerusalem with the intention of punishing the Jews for 
their disobedience to his orders. Jud'dica, the High-priest, 
was ordered in a dream to meet the threatening conqueror 
in his pontifical robes, at the head of all the priests in their 
proper habits, and attended by the people dressed in white 
garments. Alexander was struck with this religious pomp, 
and, approaching the High-priest with the deepest respect, 
embraced him with a kind of religious veneration. He told 
his attendants, who expressed their surprise at this sub- 
Through whose influence was their interest still greater with Artax- 
erxes ? What did Ezra obtain from Artaxerxes ? Who seem to have 
been the last governors of Judah ? — 3. From this period, to what must 
most of the calamities be ascribed? From whom did the candidates 
purchase the office? — 4. What happened about the year 328? What is 
related of Juddica, the high-priest ? What did Alexander tell his at- 
tendants ? 



24 SACRED HISTORY. 

missive behavior, that he did not pay this profound respect 
to the llig-h-priest, but to the God whose minister he was. 

5. Alexander, on his departure, granted to the Jews the 
freedom of their country, laws, and religion, and exempted 
them from paying tribute every seventh year ; and during 
his whole reign they enjoyed great tranquillity ; but with 
him the prosperous condition of their country expired. 
Judea was successively invaded and subdued by the Syrians 
and Egyptians, and the people reduced to bondage. The 
Jews kept the Sabbath so rigidly that they would not, on 
that day, engage in battle nor defend themselves, although 
attacked by an enemy. Ptolemy, king of Egypt, having 
invaded Judea, took advantage of this religious impediment. 
He entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath-day without resist- 
ance, and carried away to Egypt one hundred thousand 
captives. 

6. About the year 198 B.C., Anti'ochus the Great, king 
of Syria, after taking the city of Jerusalem, and plundering 
the Temple, sold forty thousand Jews to the neighboring 
nations, and established paganism through Judea. The 
sacrifices ceased, and for a season there scarcely existed the 
slightest external signs of religion. During the scene of 
desolation which stained the land of Judea with the blood 
of its best citizens, Mattathi'as, a man of the sacerdotal 
order, undertook the deliverance of his country. He retired 
into the wilderness with his five sons, surnamed the Mac'- 
cabees, and was soon joined by a great number of the Jews, 
who wished to avoid idolatry and religious persecution. An 
army was shortly raised sufficiently strong to face the enemy 
in the field. Mattathias, placing himself at the head of his 
forces, led them against the troops of Antiochus, and forced 
them to retreat before him, and to fly for safety beyond the 
boundaries of Judea. 

1. After the death of Mattathias, Judas Maccabees, his 
eldest son, was placed at the head of the army. The achieve- 
ments of this distinguished man, the deliverance of his 
country from foreign oppression, his talents, bravery, and 
patriotism, have ranked him with the most illustrious 
heroes of Greece and Rome. His patriotism was only sur- 
passed by his zeal for religion. Having vanquished the 

5. What was granted to the Jews by Alexander? By whom was 
Judea now invaded ? What did Ptolemy, king of Egypt, do?— 6. What 
was done by Antiochus the Great ? During the scene of desolation, what 
did Mattathias undertake? Where did he retire? — 7. Who was now 
placed at the head of the army ? What is said of his achievements ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 25 

enemies of his country, his first care was to repair the de- 
vastations they had caused. The Temple was in a desolate 
condition, the altar and sanctuary profaned, the gates burned, 
and court overgrown with shrubs. Having appointed priests 
of unblemished character for the performance of the sacri- 
fices, he repaired the holy places, threw down the altar on 
w^hich the idol of Jupiter stood, and erected another, dedi- 
cating it with great joy and religious festivity. The sacred 
veil was again hung up, and the sacred vessels, golden can- 
dlesticks, and altar of perfumes were again replaced. Judas 
Maccabees having thus, by many signal victories, delivered 
his country from bondage and idolatry, was at last slain in 
battle, 157 b. c. 

8. The brothers of Judas, pursuing the advantage already 
gained, completely established the independence of their 
country, and the republican form of government afterwards 
changed to that of a monarchy. John Hyrca'nus, the son 
of Simon Maccabees, united in his person the office of high- 
priest and that of commander-in-chief of the army, and, pos- 
sessing all the abilities requisite for the military and pontifical 
offices, he vanquished the enemies of his country and firmly 
established his authority. His sons assumed the title as 
well as the power of kings, and the succession remained in 
his family for about one hundred and twenty-six years. The 
unfortunate dissensions of this family terminated ultimately 
in the conquest of Judea by Pom'pey the Great, who took 
Jerusalem and subjugated the Jewish nation to the dominion 
of the Romans, 59 b. c. 

9. After this event, the Jewish monarchy was reestab- 
lished by the favor and under the protection of the Romans, 
who placed Herod the Great,* son of Antip'ater, on the 
throne of David. This prince demolished the old Temple 
of Jerusalem, and rebuilt it in a very magnificent manner. 
He reigned with great splendor, but was cruel and despotic. 
His public life exhibits a continued scene of battles, tyranny, 
and violence. His reign is rendered memorable by the birth 
of our Divine Lord and Savior, Jesus C heist. f When 

* The first foreigner that swayed the sceptre of Judah. 
t This great event occurred on the 25th of December, 4004 years after 
the creation of Adam and Eve. 

Of the temple ? What did he throw down ? How did Judas Macca- 
bees die ? — 8. What is said of the brothers of Judas ? Of John Hyrca- 
nus? What did his sons assume ? Who conquered Judea? — 9. After 
this, by whom was the Jewish monarchy reestablished? In whose 
favor? What did this prince do ? For what is his reign memorable ? 
3 



26 SACRED HISTORY. 

this remarkable event took place, the Ma'gi, or Wise Men, 
as the Scripture calls them, came from the east to Jerusalem 
to adore the new-born king of the Jews, and desired to know 
where he was to be found. Herod, aware that he had no 
other title to the crown of Judea than that which the 
Romans had given him, was much alarmed at this inquiry 
which was made about another King. He therefore dis- 
missed the Wise Men with a strict injunction to bring him 
back an account of the Child when they had found it, that 
he might go, as he pretended, to adore it. The Wise Men, 
having paid their adoration to the Infant at the manger of 
Bethlehem, were admonished, in their sleep, to return by 
another way to their country. Herod, finding himself thus 
deceived by the sages, with cruelty that would shock the 
most savage barbarian, gave orders that every male child 
born at Bethlehem within the last two years should be put 
to death. This cruel King died in the first year of the birth 
of Christ, or the fourth of the common era. 

10. During the reign of Herod II., the illustrious St. John 
the Baptisf^ was beheaded, because he reproyed the monarch 
for the crime of marrying his brother's wife. It was also 
during the same reign that our Blessed Savior's Cruci- 
fixion, Resurrection, and Ascension took place. In the reign 
of his son, Herod the Great, the Apostle, St. James, suffered 
martyrdom, and St. Peter was imprisoned ; but the unhappy 
monarch himself died a miserable death, being devoured 
by worms. Before his son, Agrippa, who was the last king 
of Judea, St. Paul pleaded in defence of the Gospel. From 
this period the Governors of Judea were appointed by the 
Roman emperors, and in this condition it remained until the 
final extinction of the Jewish nation. 

11. The rapacity and cruelty of Florus, the last Governor 
of Judea, caused a rebellion of the Jews, in which one hun- 
dred and fifty thousand persons are said to have perished, 
A. D. 66. The unhappy Jerusalem was now hastening to its 
downfall, while the sanguinary and violent factions among 
the Jews themselves contributed towards this event. In 
the reign of Vespasian, Ti'tiis, the Roman general, was sent 

* He died about a year before the death of our Lord. 

When this event took place, what is related ? Finding himself de- 
ceived, what orders did he give? — 10. Why was St. John beheaded? 
What took place in the reign of Herod the Great? From this period 
how were tlie governors appointed? — 11. What did the rapacity of 
Florus cause ? In the reign of Vespasian, what took place ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 27 

into Judea to suppress the revolt of the Jews. He com- 
menced the siege of the city about the festival of Easter, at 
which time an immense multitude of people was shut up 
within the walls. With so much ardor did Titus conduct 
the operations of the siege, that the city was taken within 
the space of five months, and so completely demolished that 
not a stone was left upon a stone, except a part of the west- 
ern wall, and three towers preserved for the Roman garri- 
son left in Judea. 

12. The last siege of Jerusalem was attended with scenes 
of carnage, famine, disease, and desperation, far more horri- 
ble than any to be met with in the annals of human misery. 
During the calamitous progress of the siege, Titus displayed 
many instances of humanity towards the besieged, and made 
every effort for the preservation of the city and Temple, but 
in vain; and viewing the disasters that befell the nation, he 
confessed that he was only the instrument of divine ven- 
geance. The magnificent Temple of the Jews perished with 
the general wreck of the nation, thus literally fulfilling the 
predictions of our Blessed Lord concerning the utter destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem. This memorable event took place a. d. 
70.* 

13. According to the most accurate calculation, about eleven 
hundred thousand Jews perished during the siege of their 
capital, and ninety-seven thousand, who were made pris- 
oners, were sold as slaves to different nations. Since that 
time the descendants of those who survived the dissolution 
of the Jewish nation have been wandering from nation to 
nation, objects of contempt rather than of commiseration. 
In but few countries have they enjoyed the same privileges 
as those among whom they are permitted to reside. 

14. Antiquities. — The country of the ancient Hebrews was 
distinguished by several names, such as the land of Canaan, 
the Holy Land, Palestine, Judea, etc. ; and the people them- 
selves were variously called the people of God, Israelites, 
and Jews. After the entrance of the Israelites into the land 
of Canaan, it was divided into twelve difi'erent portions, 

* For a full account of Sacred History, see the Holy Bible and the 
works of Josephus. 

How long did the siege last ? What is said of the destruction of the 
city ?— 12. What is said of the siege of Jerusalem ? Of Titus ? Of the 
temple ? When did this event take place ? — 13. How many Jews per- 
ished during the siege ? How many were sold as slaves ? Since that 
time what is said of the inhabitants ? — 14. What is said of the country ? 
How was it divided ? 



28 SACRED HISTORY. 

which were assigned to the twelve several tribes into which 
the people were separated. 

15. Remains of Ancient Works. — Among the ancient 
works of Palestine, Jacob's well, the pools of Solomon, 
Gi'hon, and Bethe'sa, and sepulchral monuments, are the 
most remarkable. Jacob's well is highly venerated on ac- 
count of its great antiquity. It is hewn out of the solid 
rock, about one hundred feet in depth and nine in diameter, 
and is at present covered with a stone vault. 

The pools of Solomon, supposed to have been constructed 
by the order of that monarch, appear to have been a work 
of immense cost and labor. They are three in a row, so sit- 
uated that the water of the uppermost may fall into the sec- 
ond, and from second to the third. They are of equal breadth, 
being about ninety paces each ; though they vary in length, 
the longest being two hundred and twenty paces. The pools 
of Gihon and Bethesa are similar works, and may be ranked 
among the most stately ruins. The sepulchral monuments 
are to be found in various parts of the country. The most 
magnificent remains of this kind are the royal sepulchres 
within the walls of Jerusalem ; they are all hewn out of 
the solid marble rock, and contain several spacious apart- 
ments. 

16. Cities. — Of these, Jerusalem, the metropolis of the 
country and the centre of the Jewish worship, was the 
most celebrated, and no place in the world recalls so many 
hallowed associations. The city w^as built on several hills, 
the largest of which was Mount Zi'on. It was enlarged 
and embellished by David, Solomon, and other kings. On 
the east or lower city was Mount Mori'ah, on which stood 
the magnificent temple of Solomon. After the destruction 
of Jerusalem by Titus, a new city was built in the reign of 
Adrian, the Roman emperor, and called JE'lia Capitoli'na, 
but there was a considerable alteration in the site. Mount 
Zion, the principal quarter of the ancient city, was not com- 
prised within the limits of the new one. It subsists at the 
present time in a deplorable condition, inhabited by Turks, 
Jews, and Christians. Ga'za and As'calon were the other 
two most noted cities. 

15. What are some of the ancient works of Palestine? What is said 
of Jacob's well ? Of Solomon's pools ? What are the pools Gihon and 
Bethesa? AVhich are the most magnificent of the sepulchral monu- 
ments? — 16. Which was the most celebrated city? On what was it 
built ? When was a new city built ? What are the other most noted 
cities ? 



SACRED HISTORY. 29 

11. Manners and Customs. — The rite of circumcision has 
distinguished the Jewish people from the earliest period of 
their history. It was always accompanied with great feast- 
ing and other demonstrations of joy. At this time the child 
was named in the presence of the company assembled, among 
whom bread and wine were distributed. 

The diet of the Jews, except on festivals, seems to have 
been very plain. Bread, water, and vinegar were in common 
use. Honey was esteemed a peculiar delicacy, and the milk 
of goats was considered excellent for food. 

Their amusements seem to have consisted chiefly in social 
repasts, music, and dancing, which partook of a religious 
character. Their mourning for the death of friends was 
expressed by rending their garments, tearing their hair, 
heaping ashes upon their heads, wearing sackcloth, and 
lying on the ground. From the pains they took to provide 
a place of burial for themselves and their descendants, it is 
evident that they considered it a heavy calamity to be denied 
a burial, and a favor to be interred among their ancestors. 
Their sepulchres were on their own land, and were often cut 
out of a rock. 

18. Arts, Language, and Literature. — The language of the 
Jews w^as the Hebrew, the genius of which is pure, primi- 
tive, and natural ; and it is highly probable that they had 
very early the art of writing. The materials on which they 
first wrote were plates of stone ; they afterwards used what 
was called rolls, which is supposed to be a kind of parch- 
ment. The arts in which they most excelled were those of 
war, husbandry, poetry, and music. Their situation made 
them a warlike people, being surrounded by enemies. Their 
arms of defence were the shield, helmet, coat of mail, and 
breast-plate ; their offensive weapons were the two-edged 
sword, javelin, sling, and the bow and arrow. 

19. The literary productions of the Hebrews are collected 
in the sacred books of the Old Testament, in which we can 
find more eloquence, more moral and historical truth, more 
poetry, — in a word, more beauties than we could gather 
from all other books together, of whatever country or lan- 
guage. Aside from its supernatural character, this marvel- 



17. What rite has distinguished the Jewish people? What is said 
of their diet? Of what did their amusements consist? How was their 
mourning for the dead exju'essed?— 18. What is said of their language? 
On what did they write? What did their situation make them? What 
were their arms ? — 19. What is said of the Old Testament ? 
3* 



30 SACRED HISTORY. 

lous volume stands alone among the literary monuments of 
other nations for the sublimity of its doctrine and the sim- 
plicity of its style. It is the book of all centuries, countries, 
and conditions, and affords the best solution of the most 
mysterious problems concerning God, man, and the universe. 
When perused in the right spirit it cultivates the taste, it 
elevates the mind, and it nourishes the soul with the word 
of life. It has, in short, inspired the best productions of 
human genius. 



BOOK 11. 

The Grreat Empires of Antiquity. 



CHAPTER I. 

A GLANCE AT ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 

ASSYR'IA, the first of the four great empires of an- 
tiquity, derived its name from Ash'ur, the son of Shem, 
who is said to have been the founder of Nin'eveh, its capital. 
The foundation of Babylon is ascribed to Nimrod, the grand- 
son of Ham, who is believed by many to be the same as 
Be'Uis of profane history. These two cities are supposed 
to have been founded about the same time, shortly after the 
dispersion of mankind; but their history for many ages is 
involved in obscurity. It is commonly supposed that Assyria 
and Babylon were originally two distinct kingdoms, and con- 
tinued separate until Babylon was conquered by Ni'nus and 
annexed to the Assyrian empire. 

2. Ninus is represented as a great and powerful sovereign ; 
he is said to have built, or at least to have enlarged and em- 
bellished, the city of Nineveh, which stood upon the eastern 
bank of the Ti'gris. His design was to immortalize his 
name by the building of a city which, in point of extent 
and magnificence, could not be surpassed by any other in 
after times. Nor was he much deceived in his view. Nin- 
eveh was laid out in the form of an oblong square. It 
measured eighteen miles and three-quarters in length, eleven 
and one quarter in breadth, and sixty miles in circumference. 
The walls were one hundred feet high, and of such thickness 
that three chariots might stand abreast upon them with ease ; 



Chapter I. — 1. What is said of Assyria? Who founded Babylon? 
What is supposed concerning Assyria and Babylon? — 2. What is said 
of Ninus? What was his design? Describe Nineveh. 

31 



32 THE GREAT EMPIRES OF ANTIQUITY. 

and they were fortified and adorned with fifteen hundred 
towers, two hundred feet high.* 

3. Ninus having made extensive conquests married Semir'- 
amis, who succeeded him on the throne. She is described 
as a woman of surpassing wit and beauty, boundless ambi- 
tion, and extraordinary ability for war and government. 
Semiramis enlarged Babylon and rendered it the most mag- 
nificent city in the world. 

4. The description of Babylon, given by ancient historians, 
seems almost incredible. The walls are said to have been 
eighty-seven feet in thickness and three hundred and fifty in 
height. They were drawn round the city in the form of an 
exact square, each side of which was fifteen miles in length, 
all built of brick cemented together with bitumen. On every 
side of this great square there were twenty-five gates, which 
were all made of solid brass. From these twenty -five gates 
the same number of streets ran in lines parallel to the gates 
on the opposite side of the wall, thus forming fifty streets, 
each fifteen miles long, and one hundred and fifty feet broad. 
Around these squares, on every side, stood the houses, all 
built three or four stories high, and beautified, towards the 
streets, with all kinds of ornaments. The space within the 
middle of each square was vacant ground laid out in beau- 
tiful garden s.f 

5. Semiramis, after a brilliant reign of forty-two years, 
left the throne to her son Ninyas. From the time of Nin- 
yas to the overthrow of the monarchy under Sardanapa'lus, 
a period of several centuries, little or nothing is known re- 
specting the history of Assyria and Babylon. 

The name of Sardanapalus is almost a proverbial reproach. 
He is said to have so degraded himself as to adopt the dress 
and occupation of a female, and to have passed his life in the 
most disgraceful effeminacy and voluptuousness. At length 
Ar^baces, governor of Media, with BeVesis, governor of the 

* To-day no imposing ruins mark the gloomy site of Nineveh. Heaps 
of earth or grass-grown mounds, revealing not a trace of building, are 
all that tell you that you are standing where stood that " exceeding 
great city of three days' journey." See Myers' Remains of Lost Empires, 
chap. iv. 

t The mighty Babylon of old now lies in crumbled heaps of ruins, 
in size mountain-like. Enormous mounds and fragments of lofty walls 
are all that remain of its glory and grandeur. See Myers' Remains of 
Lost Empires, chap. viii. 

3. What is said of Semiramis ?— 4. Describe Babylon. — 5. How long 
did Semiramis reign? What is said of Sardanapalus? 



THE GREAT EMPIRES OF ANTIQUITY. 33 

city of Babylon, and several others, disgusted with his in- 
glorious and shameful life, formed a conspiracy against him. 
Sardanapalus having sustained a defeat, in order to avoid 
falling into the hands of his enemies, caused a pile of wood 
to be made in his palace, and burnt himself, with all his 
women and treasures. 

6. On the ruins of this vast empire were founded three 
new kingdoms — JfecZm under Arbaces, Babylon under Belesis, 
and Assyria under Ninus the younger. Ninus was suc- 
ceeded by Tiglathpile'ser, who invaded Judah during the 
reign of Ahaz, and took possession of that part of the king- 
dom of Israel which lies east of the Jordan. Under the 
reign of his successor, Shalmane'ser, an end was put to the 
kingdom of Israel, and its inhabitants were carried into cap- 
tivity. The next sovereign was Senna'cherib, who laid siege 
to Jerusalem in the reign of Hezeki'ah, but he was compelled 
to return to his own dominions in disgrace, having lost 
185,000 men of his army, who were destroyed in a miracu- 
lous manner in one night. The fourth king, Esarhaddon, 
defeated Manasseh, king of Judah, and carried him captive 
into Assyria. 

7. After the death of Esarhad' don, Nahopolas' sar or Nehu- 
chadnez'zar, king of Babylon, assisted by Gyax'ares, king 
of Media, besieged Nineveh, and having taken it, killed Sa- 
racus the king, and utterly destroyed that mighty city, and 
put an end to the Assyrian monarchy. He was succeeded 
by his son, Nebuchadnezzar II., who took Jerusalem and 
carried the Jews captive to Babylon. The particulars of this 
sovereign's reign are recorded in the book of Daniel. God, 
to punish his pride, reduced him to a state of insanity, but, 
after wandering in the forest and feeding on grass like a wild 
beast for twelve months, he again recovered his mind, and 
being restored to his throne, by a solemn edict, published 
throughout his dominions the astonishing things that God 
had wrought in him. 

8. During the reign of Belshaz'zar,^ who succeeded to the 
throne a few years after the death of Nebuchadnez'zar, the 

* Also written Balthas^sar. 



What was the end of Sardanapalus? — 6. What empires were now 
founded ? What was done in the reign of Shalmaneser ? Who was the 
next sovereign, and Avhat did he do? What did Esarhaddon do? — 
7. What happened during the reign of Nabopolassar ? What did Nebu- 
chadnezzar do ? How did God punish him ? 8. What was done during 
the reign of Belshazzar ? 

C 



34 THE GREAT EMPIRES OF ANTIQUITY. 

Persians under Cyrus, after a siege of two years, by turning 
the course of the Euphrates, entered the city of Babylon 
through the dry channel, and took it while the inhabitants 
were engaged in feasting and riot. The impious Belshazzar 
was slain, and with him ended the Babylonian empire, after 
it had continued for about two hundred and ten years. 

9. Antiquities. — The government both of Assyria and 
Babylon was strictly despotic and the crown hereditary. All 
power was centred in the king ; decrees emanated from him, 
and he even claimed the worship which belonged only to the 
divinity. The laws of the empire were in general vague 
and uncertain, depending wholly upon the will of the sove- 
reign ; but there was one, however, fixed and irrevocable, 
which obliged all, particularly the poor, to marry. And in 
this a singular custom prevailed. No man had any power 
over his own daughters, but as soon. as they were marriage- 
able, they were put up at auction ; and the price obtained for 
the more beautiful was assigned as a dowry for the more 
homely. In consequence of this curious practice, all the 
young women were disposed of in marriage ; the beautiful 
for their charms, and the homely for their wealth. 

10. The Babylonians, and particularly the Chaldeans, were 
early famed for their learning. They were the first who 
cultivated astronomy and discovered the exact motion of the 
planets ; they pretended to be able to foretell future events 
from the heavenly bodies, which was embodied into a kind 
of science called astrology. They built temples to the stars 
as being the subordinate agents of the divine power, and by 
worshipping them they hoped to obtain the good will of the 
deity. 

From this they descended, by a natural process, to the 
worship of objects on earth as the representatives of the stars 
or the Deity. It is evident that this was the origin of idol 
worship, from the fact that the names of the principal gods 
of the heathens in general are those of the sun, moon, and 
the five primary planets — Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, 31ercury, 
and Venus. The horrid custom of sacrificing human victims to 
conciliate their gods was first practised by the Babylonians, and 
from them it was communicated to the surrounding nations. 



What was the end of Belshazzar ?— 9. What is said of the govern- 
ment and laws of Assyria and Babylon ? What singular custom pre- 
vailed?— 10. What is said of the learning of the Babylonians and 
Chaldeans? To what did they build temples ? What is said concerning 
the origin of idol worship ? 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 35 

The Babylonians applied themselves only to the more use- 
ful arts. Their immense buildings prove them to have been 
well skilled in architecture and geometry. They never at- 
tained to any superior excellence in painting and statuary ; 
and music and poetry were probably but little attended to.* 



CHAPTER 11. 

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



PEKSIA was the second of the four great empires of an- 
tiquity. Its history, prior to the reign of Cy'rus the 
Great, is involved in fable and obscurity. It was originally 
called E'lam, and the inhabitants Elamites, who were the de- 
scendants of Shem. We are informed by the Scriptures that 
one of the kings of Elam conquered the king of Sodom, but 
was pursued and defeated by A'hraham. In the early ages 
it was of very limited exteut, but under the reign of Cyrus, 
who was the founder of the great Persian empire, it became 
the most powerful and extensive monarchy in the world, 
comprising Persia, Media, Babylonia, Syria, and Asia Minor ; 
and to these Egypt was added by Gamhy'ses. 

2. Gyrus is represented as a prince of excellent character. 
He obtained the surname of Great, from his heroic actions 
and splendid achievements. Having subdued all the nations 
from the ^gean sea to the Euphrates, he, together with his 
uncle Gyax'ares, the second king of the Medes, took Baby- 
lon and conquered the Assyrian empire. After the death of 
Gyaxares, Gyrus united the two kingdoms and reigned over 
them for seven years, in the first of which he published the 
famous edict for the return of the Jews and the rebuilding 
of Jerusalem. 

3. Herodotus, Xen'ophon, and other famous authors, differ 
materially in the accounts they give of the exploits and char- 

■'^ For a fuller account of Assyria and Babylon, see Fredet's Ancient 
History. 



To what did the Babylonians apply themselves ? 

Chapter II. — 1. What is said of Persia? What did it become in the 
reign of Cyrus?— 2. What is said of Cyrus? What did he do? What 
edict did he publish ? — 3. How do Herodotus and Xenophon differ in 
their accounts of Cyrus? 



36 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE: 

acter of Gyrus. According to Xenophon, Cyrus possessed 
all the abilities of an able and illustrious sovereign, with all 
the more amiable virtues that adorn humanity ; and, accord- 
ing to the same author, he died like a philosopher, discoursing 
of death with tranquillity, and giving the most admirable in- 
struction to his children, by which to form their character 
and regulate their future conduct. On the other hand, we 
are told by Herodotus, that Cyrus, having undertaken an 
expedition against the Scythians, was surprised and slain by 
a stratagem of the enemy. The account given by Xenophon 
has been followed by RoVlin and other modern writers, yet 
it is supposed by some that it was not the design of that 
ancient author to exhibit a faithful record of facts, but rather 
to delineate the model of a perfect prince and a well organized 
government. 

4. Cyrus was succeeded by his son, Camhy'ses, who was 
arbitrary and cruel. The conquest of Egypt was his prin- 
cipal achievement. He made himself master of Pelusium 
by placing in front of his army a great number of those ani- 
mals considered sacred by the Egyptians, who, not daring to 
injure them, made no opposition to the Persians. On the 
death of Camhyses, Smerdis usurped the crown ; but after 
enjoying the regal dignity for seven months, he was assassi- 
nated, and Dari'us was elected to fill the vacant throne. 
The history of Persia, from the reign of this sovereign un- 
til the overthrow of the monarchy, is much connected with 
that of Greece. 

5. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerx'es, who con- 
ducted the second invasion of Greece, but returned to his 
own dominions in shame and disgrace, after sustaining a 
series of defeats, with immense loss. He was succeeded by 
his son Artaxer' xes, who enjoyed a long and peaceful reign. 
The only sovereigns of distinction who reigned after this 
period, were Artaxerxes II., and Darius Codoma'nus, the 
last of the Persian monarchs. Codomanus was defeated by 
Alexander the Great, and finally assassinated ; and with his 
death the ancient empire terminated, b. c. 331. 

6. Antiquities. — The government of Persia was an abso- 
lute monarchy. The crown was hereditary, and generally 
bestowed on the eldest son of the deceased king. The sov- 



4. Who succeeded Cyrus? How did he make himself master of 
Pelusium? On the death of Cambyses, who usurped the throne? — 
6. What is said of Xerxes ? Who was the last of the Persian monarchs, 
and what was his end ? — 6. What is said of the government of Persia ? 



THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 37 

ereigns received almost divine honors from their subjects. 
No one could approach the seat of majesty without pros- 
trating himself upon the ground, or remain in his presence 
without holding his hands w^ithin his sleeves. A violation 
of this ceremony was punished with death. The royal pal- 
ace at Persep'olis was extremely magnificent. The ceiling 
and walls of the apartments were covered with ivory, silver, 
gold, or amber ; the throne was also of fine gold adorned 
with precious stones.* 

7. The Persians are said to have paid more particular 
regard to the education of their children than any other na- 
tion. We are told that a son was never admitted into the 
presence of his father until he had arrived at the age of five 
years, lest the parent might be too heavily afflicted by the 
loss, if the child should die before that period. At the age 
of five years, the children, at least of the higher classes of 
the state, were placed under the care of learned and virtuous 
masters, who bestowed on their pupils the utmost attention. 

8. The mode of punishment among the Persians was gen- 
erally severe. It consisted in cutting off the right hand, de- 
capitation, pressing to death between two large stones, and 
so on. The most hard and inhuman was that of fastening 
the culprit in such a manner that he was unable to move 
hand or foot. His face, exposed to the rays of the sun, was 
smeared with honey, which invited innumerable swarms of 
flies and wasps to torment him ; the executioners compelled 
him, by thrusting sharp instruments into his eyes, to receive 
nourishment, for the purpose of prolonging his agonies. We 
are told of one victim, who lived seventeen days under such 
brutal torments. The Persians were trained to all the mili- 
tary exercises, but particularly to the use of the bow. They 
never fought in the night, nor used any stratagem indepen- 
dent of their valor. 

* Even in its ruins PersepoUs is magnificent. " Not only youthful trav- 
ellers glov/ing with imagination," writes Vaux, "but those of sober judg- 
ment, matured by the experience of many years, seem, as they approach 
these venerable monuments, to be inspired with the genius of Eastern 
romance, and their respective languages scarcely furnish epithets capa- 
ble of expressing, with an adequate energy, the astonishment and ad- 
miration excited by such stupendous objects." See Myers' Remains of 
Lost Empires, Chap. XII. 

What is said of those who approached the sovereign? Describe the 
palace of Persepolis. — 7. To what did they pay peculiar regard ? What 
custom prevailed ? — 8. What is said of the niode of punishnient ? De- 
scribe one severe form, 
4 



38 THE PHCENICIANS. 

9. Their religion was idolatrous, but not so gross as that 
of some of the surrounding nations. They professed to 
worship the one all-wise and omnipotent God; but they 
held fire to the holy, and the purest symbol of the divine 
nature. In connection with this they adored the sun, and 
paid a superstitious regard to other elements, such as the 
earth, air, and water. In ancient times they were destitute 
of temples, and erected altars for the preservation of the sa- 
cred fire on the tops of the mountains. At length Zoroas'ter 
persuaded them, for the sake of convenience, to build over 
each a pyreum or fire temple. The priests were called 31a' gi, 
and were held in great esteem on account of their learning. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE PHCENICIANS. 



THE Phoeni'cians were among the most remarkable and 
early civilized nations of antiquity. They are styled 
Canaanites in the Scripture, and seem to have been a com- 
mercial people in the time of Abraham. Their two principal 
cities, and the most ancient we read of in history, were Ty'^^e 
and Si' don. The Phoenicians are the reputed inventors of 
glass, purple, letters, and coinage ; they are regarded as the 
earliest navigators and merchants in the world ; they carried 
on trade, not only over all the coasts of the Mediterranean, 
but even visited the shores of Britain, from which they ex- 
ported tin. 

2. To Hi'ram, king of Tyre, both David and Solomon 
applied, when proposing to build the Temple at Jerusalem. 
He furnished them not only with precious materials, but also 
with a great number of workmen. The Phoenicians sent out 
a number of colonies to Cyprus, Rhodes, Greece, Sicily, 
Sardinia, and Spain. The foundation of Carthage is at- 
tributed to Di'do, sister of Pygma'lion, king of Tyre, with 
a company of adventurers. The city of Tyre sustained two 



9. What is said of their religion ? What did they adore ? 

Chapter III. — 1. What is said of the Phoenicians? Of what were 
they inventors ? — 2. What is said of Hiram ? Where did they send 
colonies? What is said of Tyre? 



EGYPT. 39 

memorable sieges, and was twice taken — first by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and again by Alexander the Great. 



CHAPTER ly. 

EG YPT. 



EGYPT holds a conspicuous place in history, on account 
of its early civilization and high attainment in the arts. 
It was considered by the ancients as the most renowned 
school of wisdom and politics, and the source from which 
most of the arts and sciences are derived. Even the most 
illustrious men of Greece, such as Eo'mer and Pla'to, Ly- 
cur'gus and So^lon, travelled into Egypt to complete their 
studies, and to draw thence whatever was rare and valuable 
in learning. 

2. The ancient history of this country is greatly involved 
in obscurity. Historians, how^ever, unanimously agree that 
Miz^raim, the son of Ham, was the founder of the Egyptian 
monarchy ; he is supposed to be the same as Me'nes, who is 
said to have instituted the worship of the gods and the cere- 
monies of the sacrifices ; he was succeeded on the throne by 
his posterity for several generations. Egypt was next gov- 
erned by a race of foreign princes from Arabia, styled Shep- 
herd Kings, who invaded the country, and retained possession 
of the greater portion of it for the space of two hundred and 
sixty years. 

3. The ancient Egyptians seem never to have been a war- 
like people. The only King of the country whose name 
stands recorded as a great conqueror is Sesos'tris, who is 
said to have maintained a numerous army, and conquered 
a great part of Asia. Little, how^ever, is known of his 
achievements, or the extent of his conquests. Towards the 
close of his life he is said to have renounced the profes- 
sion of arms, and to have devoted himself to the internal 
improvement of his kingdom. Having become blind in old 
age, he died by his own hand, after a reign of thirty-three 
years. 

Chapter IV. — 1. What is said of Egypt ? How was it considered by 
the ancients ? — 2. Who was the founder of the Egyptian monarchy ? 
By whom was Egypt next governed ? — 3. What is said of the ancient 
Egyptians? of Sesostris? 



40 EGYPT. 

4. The next sovereign who is particularly distinguished 
in the history of this country was Nechus, styled in the 
scripture, Pharaoh Necho. He patronized navigation, and 
fitted out a fleet, which, leaving the Red Sea, sailed around 
the coast of Africa, and returned to Egypt through the 
Straits of Gibraltar. He waged a successful war against 
the Medes and Babylonians, and defeated Josiah, king of 
Judah, in the battle Megiddo, and imposed an annual tribute 
upon the country. 

5. Egypt was invaded by the Persians under Cambyses, 
about the year 525 before the Christian era. The cities of 
Pelusium and Memphis w^ere taken, and the whole country 
reduced to a province of the Persian monarchy. Egypt was 
wrested from the dominion of Persia by Alexander the 
Great, and after his death it fell to the share of Ptolemy. 
Under this monarch and his successors the country regained 
its ancient lustre, and rose to eminence in science and com- 
merce. The dynasty of the Ptolemies continued from the 
death of Alexander to that of Cleopatra, embracing a period 
of tAvo hundred and ninety-three years. 

6. Ptolemy Lagus, surnamed also Soter, is said to have 
been the natural son of Philip, king of Macedon, and half 
brother of Alexander the Great. At the time of Alexander's 
death he was governor of Egypt, and afterwards became 
king of the country. He was a man of great ability, equally 
eminent as a general and a statesman, distinguished for his 
learning, and a munificent patron of literature. 

He founded the famous library of Alexandria, established 
a museum or academy, and erected the celebrated watch- 
tower of Pharos, which was reckoned by some as one of 
the seven wonders of the world. He built a number of 
new cities, encouraged commerce and agriculture, and con- 
quered Syria. He died after a prosperous reign of thirty- 
nine years. 

7. Ptolemy Lagus was succeeded by his son Ptolemy Phila- 
deVphus, whose reign, like that of his father, was useful 
and prosperous. He patronized commerce and navigation, 
founded several cities, and erected magnificent buildings. 
His court was a seat of learning, politeness, and the arts, 
and was resorted to by men of genius. During his reign, 

4. Who was the next sovereign, and what is said of him ? — 5. Who 
invaded Egypt ? By whom was it wrested from the Persians ? How 
long did the dynasty of the Ptolemies continue? — 6. What is said of 
Ptolemy Lagus ? What did he establish ?— 7. By whom was Ptolemy 
Lagus succeeded ? What is said of him ? 



EGYPT. 41 

the celebrated version of the Old Testament into Greek, 
called the Sep'tuagint, was made for the use of the Jews, who 
were settled at that time ill Alexandria. 

8. Ptolemy Ever'getes, the son of the late monarch, who 
succeeded to the throne, was a warlike prince, but also a 
patron of learning-, and spared no pains to enrich his library. 
In the early part of his reign he carried on a severe though 
successful war with Anti'ochus, king of Syria. He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Ptolemy Philo'pator, a sanguinary tyrant, 
whose reign was distinguished for a cruel persecution of the 
Jews. Having invaded Judea, and advanced as far as Jeru- 
salem, he attempted to enter by force into the holy place of 
the Jewish temple, into which none but the High-priest was 
allowed to enter, and that only once a year. Being forcibly 
prevented from committing this sacrilege, he returned to 
Egypt, and resolved to wreak his vengeance on the Jews, who 
had enjoyed the favor of his predecessors. 

9. He published a decree, that all the Jews within his do- 
minions should abjure their religion and sacrifice to the gods 
of Egypt, under the severest penalties. Only about nine 
hundred, however, were found to apostatize. After this, he 
ordered all the Jews in Alexandria to assemble in a place of 
public diversion, called the Bij/podr^ome, where he had col- 
lected five hundred elephants for the destruction of that de- 
voted people ; but the enraged animals, rushing among the 
crowd, crushed to death a greater number of the spectators 
than of the Jews. Yet it is computed that about forty 
thousand of the latter perished on that occasion. 

10. The history of the remaining Ptolemies presents little 
that is interesting. For the most part, their reigns were un- 
happy, abounding in crimes and calamities. Ptolemy Diony'- 
sius was the last king of Egypt. He succeeded to the throne 
at the early age of thirteen years, and reigned in conjunction 
with his sister, the celebrated Cleopa^tra, who aspired to 
undivided authority. A war ensued, in which Ptolemy was 
slain, and Cleopatra assumed the sole government. Her 
history is connected with that of Julius Caesar and Mark 
Antony ; she finally caused her own death by poison, in order 
to avoid being led captive to Rome to grace the triumph of 
Octavius. After her death, Egypt became a Roman province. 



8. What is said of Ptolemy Evergetes? By whom was he succeeded? 
What did he attempt ? — 9. What did he publish ? How did he attempt 
to destroy the JeAvs? — 10. Who was the last king of Egypt? What is 
said of Cleopatra ? What did Egypt become ? 
4* 



42 EGYPT. 

CHAPTER' V. 

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF TEE EGYPTIANS. 

A STRIKING resemblance with regard to government, 
religion, customs, and character, is said to exist between 
the ancient Egyptians and many of the oriental nations, par- 
ticularly the Chinese. The government was an hereditary 
monarchy, but the power of the sovereign was restrained by 
the influence of the priests. At daybreak in the morning, 
the King arose and read the several letters he received the 
preceding day. He then went to the temple to attend the 
offering of sacrifice, and to assist at the prayers pronounced 
aloud by the High-priest, who invoked the blessing of the gods 
upon the prince, that he might govern his people with clem- 
ency and justice. The laws prescribed not only the quality 
but also quantity of food for the royal table ; as for the quality, 
it was of the most common kind, because eating, in Egypt, 
was designed not to please the palate, but to satisfy the 
wants of nature. 

2. The laws of Egypt were generally based upon the 
strictest justice. Wilful murder was punished with death, 
whatever might be the condition of the murdered person, 
whether he was free-born or otherwise. Perjury was also 
punished with death, because that crime insulted the majesty 
of the gods, by invoking their name to a falsehood, and broke 
the strongest ties of human society, namely, sincerity and 
veracity. No man was allowed to be useless to the state ; 
and every one was obliged to enter his name on the public 
register, and give an account of his profession and means of 
support. Polygamy was allowed in Egypt except to the 
priests, who could marry but one woman. A revolting cus- 
tom prevailed among the Egyptians, which permitted the 
marriage of brother and sister ; hence we find that the queens 
of the Ptolemies were generally their sisters. 

3. In Egypt, the greatest respect was paid to old age. The 
young were obliged to rise up for the old, and on every oe- 

Chapter V. — 1. What is said of the manners and customs of the 
ancient Egyptians? Of the government? Of the king? What did the 
laws prescribe ? — 2. On what were the laws based ? What was the punish- 
ment of murder? Of perjury? What was every man obliged to do? 
What was allowed ? What custom prevailed ? — 3. To what was great 
respect paid ? 



EGYPT. 43 

casion to resign to them the most honorable seats. The 
virtue, however, in the highest esteem among the Egyptians, 
was gratitude ; and it has been said of them, that they were 
the most grateful of men. But it was especially towards their 
kings that they prided themselves on evincing their grati- 
tude. That ancient people honored their rulers while living 
as so many visible representatives of the deity, and after 
their death lamented them as the fathers of their country. 

4. Never was any people more superstitious than the Egyp- 
tians ; they had a great number of gods of different orders 
and degrees. Among these, Osi'i^is and rsis were the most 
universally adored. Besides these gods they worshipped 
the ox, the wolf, the dog, the crocodile, the ibis or cat, and 
many other degrading objects. The wilful killing of one of 
these animals was punished with death. Diodo'rus relates 
the circumstance of a Roman, who fell a victim to the fury 
of the populace of Alexandria, for having accidentally killed 
a cat. The Egyptians held the absurd doctrine of the trans- 
migration of souls ; and believed that at the death of a man 
his soul entered into some other human body. If he had 
been vicious, his soul was confined in the body of some beast 
to expiate his former transgressions ; but after some centuries 
it would again animate another human body. 

6. No people paid greater respect to the remains of the 
dead than the Egyptians. As soon as any person in a fam- 
ily died, all the relations and friends laid aside their usual 
habits, and put on mourning, which they continued to wear 
for forty days or longer, according to the quality of the per- 
son. The body was then embalmed, by which process it was 
preserved from decay ; after this it was put into a kind of 
an open chest, and placed upright against the wall of the 
dwelling or sepulchre ; so that children seeing the bodies 
of their ancestors thus preserved, recalled to mind those 
virtues for which the public had honored them, and were 
excited to imitate their example. 

6. The power of the laws extended even beyond the grave. 
Before any one could be admitted into the sacred asylum of 
the tomb, he was obliged to undergo a solemn trial ; and this 
circumstance, in Egyptian funerals, is one of the most re- 



What virtue was held in the highest esteem?— 4. Besides Osiris and 
Isis, what did the Egyptians worship? What does Diodorus relate? 
What doctrine did they hold?— 5. When a member of a family died, 
what did the relations do? Describe the ceremony of embalming. — 
6. What is said of the power of the laws ? 



44 EGYPT. 

markable to be found in ancient history. The whole life 
of each person, after death, was strictly examined. If found 
to be virtuous, his body was embalmed with every mark of 
respect, and deposited in a sepulchre ; but if his life had been 
vicious, or if he had died in debt, he was left unburied, and 
was supposed to be deprived of future happiness. The kings 
themselves were not exempted from this trial after death ; 
and if their lives were vicious, they were deprived of funeral 
rites and the honor of the sepulchre. 



CHAPTER yi. 

THE PYRAMIDS, LABYRINTH, LAKE OF MJERIS, ETC. 

THE Pyramids of Egypt are the most celebrated of those 
works of grandeur for which that country has been re- 
nowned. Of these Pyramids, there were three more famous 
than the rest, near the city of Memphis — one of which 
was justly ranked among the seven wonders of the world. 
It is a gigantic structure. The base covers a surface of 
about eleven acres. The sides of the base correspond in 
direction with the four cardinal points, and each measures 
seven hundred and forty-six feet at the foundation. The 
perpendicular height is about four hundred and eighty 
feet. A hundred thousand men are said to have been em- 
ployed for the space of twenty years in erecting this vast 
edifice. The Pyramids were designed as tombs for the 
kings, and there is still to be seen, in the middle of the 
largest, an empty sepulchre, about three feet wide and six 
feet long, cut out of one entire stone. 

2. The Labyrinth of Egypt was an enormous structure 
of marble, built under ground; it comprised twelve palaces, 
w^ith a communication leading to each other, and divided 
into fifteen hundred rooms or apartments. These subterra- 
neous structures were designed as a burying-place for kings, 
and also for keeping the sacred crocodiles. The Obelisks, 
with which Egypt abounded, were quadrangular spires, ter- 

If a man had lived vicious, or died in debt, what was done? 

Chapter VI.— 1 . What is said of the Pyramids ? What was the length 
of each side of the base of the Pyramid near Memphis ? For what 
were they designed ?— 2. What was the Labyrinth ? For what designed ? 
What is said of the Obelisks ? 



EGYPT. 45 

minating in a point, often wonderful on account of their 
height and beauty. Sesostris erected two near the city of 
Heliop'olis, each one hundred and eighty feet in height. 
Several of these obelisks, with immense labor, were trans- 
ported to Rome, where they form, at the present day, the 
chief ornaments of that city. Many of them were covered 
with hieroglyphics, that is, mystical characters used by the 
Egyptians before the invention of letters, and afterwards to 
conceal the mysteries of their theology. 

3. The noblest and the most wonderful of all the struct- 
ures of the kings of Egypt, was the lake of Mse^-is, which 
Herodotus considers as even superior to the P3'ramids. This 
lake was in circumference about one hundred and eighty 
French leagues, and three hundred feet deep. Two pyra- 
mids, on each of Avhich was placed a colossal statue, seated 
upon a throne, raised their heads to the height of three 
hundred feet, in the midst of the lake, above the surface 
of the water. It is generally believed that this immense 
reservoir, with its pyramids, was completed in the reign of 
one monarch, from whom it takes its name, and was designed 
to regulate the inundations of the Nile. 

When that river rose too high, and fatal consequences 
seemed likely to follow, the water was let into the lake, and 
covered the soil no longer than was necessary to enrich it. 
On the contrary, when the inundation was too low, and 
threatened a famine, a sufficient quantity of water was let 
out of the lake upon the land. 

4. The ruins of a few of the ancient cities and palaces of 
Egypt still excite the wonder and admiration of the trav- 
eller. The glory of Thebes, the capital of upper Egypt, fa- 
mous for its hundred gates, was the theme of admiration of 
poets and historians at a period prior to the commencement 
o^ authentic history. Strabo and Diodorus describe it under 
the name of Diosp'olis, and give such magnificent descrip- 
tions of its monuments as to cause their fidelity to be called 
in question, until the observations of modern travellers have 
proved their accounts to have fallen short of the reality. 
The ruins of one of the palaces of this city are especially 
admired, and seem to have remained only to eclipse the 
glory of the most pompous edifices of modern times. There 



With what were many of them covered? — 3. What was the noblest 
work ? What was its circumference ? What was in the midst of the 
lake? For what was it designed? — 4, What is said of the ruins of 
cities, etc. ? Describe Thebes. Describe one of the palaces of this city ? 



46 - EGYPT. 

were four avenues of great extent which led to four porticoes 
of amazing height ; they were bounded on each side with 
statues, composed of materials as rare and extraordinary as 
their size was remarkable. Within the middle of this ma- 
jestic palace there was a hall, supported by one hundred and 
twenty pillars, thirty-six feet in circumference and of pro- 
portionate height, which the lapse of so many ages has not 
been able to demolish. Before the time of Herodotus, Mem- 
phis had supplanted Thebes, which seems to have been par- 
ticularly noted for its stately temples, and among them that 
of the god Apis was the most remarkable.* 

* For a fuller account of Persia, Phoenicia, and Egypt, see Fredet's 
Ancient History. 

What is said of Memphis ? 



BOOK IIL 
GREECE. 



CHAPTER I. 

GLANCES AT EARLY GREEK HISTORY. 

AMONG the various nations of antiquity, Greece de- 
servedly holds the most distinguished rank, both for 
the patriotism, genius, and learning of its inhabitants, as 
well as the high state of perfection to which they carried the 
arts and sciences. 

It formerly comprised various small independent states, 
differing from each other in forms of government and in 
the character of the people, but still united in a confederacy 
for mutual defence, by the counsel of Amphic'tyons, and by 
their common language, religion, and public games. 

2. The name Greece was never used by the ancient inhab- 
itants of that country. They called their land EeVlas, and 
themselves HeVlenes. It is from the Romans that we have 
derived the word Greece ; but why they gave it a different 
appellation from that used by the natives cannot be deter- 
mined. The original inhabitants, who were generally con- 
sidered as the descendants of Ja'van, the son of Japhet, 
lived in the lowest condition of barbarism, dwelling in huts, 
feeding on acorns and berries, and clothing themselves in 
the skins of wild beasts, when Ce'crops with a colony from 
Egypt, and Cadmus with a body of Phoeni'cians, landed in 
Greece, and planted on its shores the first rudiments of 
civilization. 

The early form of government in Greece was a limited 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of Greece? What did it formerly com- 
prise? How were they united ? — 2. What was its ancient name ? From 
whom were the inhabitants descended ? What was their condition when 
Cecrops landed in Greece? 

47 



48 GREECE. 

monarchy, which was finally abolished, and a republican form 
generally prevailed. 

3. The history of this famous land may be divided into 
two parts : 1st, the period of uncertain history, which ex- 
tends from the earliest accounts of the country to the first 
Persian war, in the year 490 b. c. ; 2d, the period of authentic 
history, extending from the Persian invasion to the final 
subjugation of Greece by the Romans, b. c. 146. The first 
period is generally reckoned from the foundation of Sic'yon, 
the most ancient kingdom of Greece, and comprises a space 
of about sixteen hundred years. This long succession of ages, 
though greatly involved in obscurity and fable, is still inter- 
spersed with several interesting particulars. It contains no 
records that properly deserve the name of history. 

4. Grecian history, however, derives some authenticity at 
this period from the Chronicle of Paros, preserved among 
the Arundelian marbles at Oxford. The authority of this 
chronicle has, indeed, been much questioned ; but still, by 
many, it is thought to be worthy of consideral3le credit. It 
fixes the dates of the most important events in the history 
of Greece, from the time of Cecrops down to the age of 
Alexander the Great. 

5. Sic'yon, the capital of the ancient kingdom of that 
name, was founded by ^gi'alus; Argos by In'achus, the 
last of the Ti'tans ; Athens, which afterwards bore such a 
distinguished part in the history of Greece, was founded by 
Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt. He was an eminent 
legislator, and instituted the court of Areop'agus. Thebes 
was founded by Cadmus, who is said to have introduced 
letters into Greece from PhoBnicia ; the alphabet, however, 
only consisted of sixteen letters, and the mode of writing 
was alternately from right to left, and from left to right. 

6. In the time of Cranaus, who succeeded Cecrops, hap- 
pened the deluge of Deuca'lion, which, though much mag- 
nified by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation. 

The other memorable institutions that distinguish this 
period were the Eleusin'ian mysteries, the Olymp'ic and 
other games, — of which we shall speak hereafter, — and the 
marvellous exploits of Her' cities and The' sens. 

3. How is the history of Greece divided ? How do these periods ex- 
tend ? What is said of the first period ? — 4. From what does the Grecian 
history derive authenticity ? Of what does this chronicle fix the date ? — 
5. By whom was Sicy on founded? Ar2:os? Athens? Thebes? What is 
said of Cadmus ? — 6. In the time of Cranaus, what happened ? What 
institutions distinguished this period ? 



GREECE. 49 

CHAPTER II. 

THE FABULOUS AND HEROIC AGES. 

THE fabulous age comprises the period from the founda- 
tion of the principal cities to the commencement of civil- 
ization, and the introduction of letters and arts into Greece. 
The first great enterprise undertaken by the Greeks was the 
Argonaut'ic expedition, which appears in its details to par- 
take more of fable than of history. It was commanded by 
Ja'son, the son of the king of loFchos, who was accom- 
panied by many of the most illustrious men of Greece, 
among whom were Her'cules, The'seus, Cas'tor and PoF- 
lux, Or'pheus, JEsculap'ius the physician, and Chi'ron the 
astronomer. 

2. They sailed from lolchos, in Thes'saly, to Col'chis, on 
the eastern coast of the Eux^ine Sea; they received the 
name Argonauts from the ship Ar'go in which they sailed, 
said to have been the first sea vessel ever built. This famous 
voyage, which was probably a military and mercantile ad- 
venture, is commonly represented to have been undertaken 
for the purpose of recovering the golden fleece of a ram, 
which originally belonged to their country. The fleece is 
pretended to have been guarded by bulls that breathed fire, 
and by a dragon that never slept. 

3. The Heroic Age was particularly distinguished by the 
Tro'jan war, the history of which rests on the authority of 
Homer, and forms the subject of his Il'iad,* the noblest poem 
of antiquity. According to the poet, HeVlen, the daughter 
of Tyn'darus, king of Sparta, was reputed the most beau- 
tiful woman of her age, and her hand was solicited by the 
most illustrious princes of Greece. Her father bound all her 
suitors by a solemn oath, that they would abide by the choice 
that Hellen should make of one among them ; and that, 
should she be taken from the arms of her husband, they would 
assist, to the utmost of their power, to recover her. 

* From Ilium, or Troy. 



Chapter II. — 1. What do the fabulous ages comprise ? What was the 
first great enterprise? Who commanded it? and who accompanied 
him ? — 2. From where did they sail ? For what was this famous voyage 
undertaken ?— 3. For what is the Heroic Age distinguished? What is 
said of Hellen? How did her father bind all her suitors? 
6 D 



50 GREECE. 

4. Hellen gave her hand to 3IeneWus, and after her nup- 
tials, Tyndarus, her father, resigned the crown to his son-in- 
law. Paris, the son of Pri'am, king of Troy, a powerful city 
founded by Dar'danus, having adjudged the prize of supe- 
rior beauty to Venus, in preference to Juno and Minerva, was 
promised by her the most beautiful woman of the age for 
his wife. Shortly after this event, Paris visited Sparta, 
where he was kindly received by Menelaus ; but in return 
for the kind hospitality tendered to him, he persuaded Hellen 
to elope with him to Troy, and carried off with her a con- 
siderable amount of treasure. 

5. This act of treachery and ingratitude produced the Tro- 
jan war. A confederacy was immediately formed by the 
princes of Greece, in accordance with their engagement, to 
avenge the outrage. An army of one hundred thousand men 
was conveyed in a fleet of twelve hundred vessels to the 
Trojan coast. Agamem'non, king of Argos, brother of Mene- 
laus, was selected as commander-in-chief. Some of the other 
princes most distinguished in this war, were Achilles, the 
bravest of the Greeks ; also Ajax, Menelaus, Ulys'ses, Nes'- 
tor, and Diome'des. 

6. The Trojans were commanded by Hec'tor, the son of 
Priam, assisted by Paris, Deiph'ohus, jE'neas, and Sar- 
pe'don. After a siege of ten years, the city was taken by 
stratagem, plundered of its wealth, and burnt to the ground.* 
The venerable Priam, king of Troy, was slain, and all his 
family carried into captivity. About eighty years after the 
destruction of Troy, the civil war of the Heracli'dae began ; 
it is usually called the return of the Heraclidae into Pelopon- 
ne'sus. Hercules, king of Myce'nae, a city of Peloponnesus, 
was banished from his country, with all his family, while 
the crown was seized by Atre'us, the son of Pe'lops. After 
the lapse of about a century, the descendants of Hercules re- 
turned to Peloponnesus, and, having expelled the inhabitants, 
again took possession of the country. 

* Much light has been thrown on the ruins of Troy by the recent re- 
searches of Dr. Schli'emann. 

4. To whom did Hellen give her hand ? What is said of Paris ? — 
5. What did this treachery produce ? Who was commander-in-chief of 
the Grecian forces? Mention the other princes. — 6. By whom were 
the Trojans commanded ? What is said of the city ? Of Priam ? What 
happened about eighty years after this ? What is &aid of Hercules ? 



GREECE, 51 

CHAPTER III. 

THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. 

SPAR'TA, orLaced8e'mon,wasthecapitalofLaco'iiia,inthe 
southern part of Peloponne'sus. After the return of the 
Heraclidae, the government was administered by the two sons 
of Aristode'mus, who reigned jointly ; and this double mon- 
archy was transmitted to the descendants of each for a period 
of eight hundred and eighty years. 

2. This radical principle of disunion, and consequently of 
anarchy, made the want of a regular system of laws severely 
felt. Lycur'gus, the brother of one of the kings of Sparta, 
a man distinguished alike for his great abilities and stern in- 
tegrity, was invested, by the united voice of the sovereigns 
and the people, with the important dut}^ of framing a new 
constitution for his country. The arduous task being at 
length completed, produced not only an entire change in the 
form of government, but also in the manners of the people. 
He instituted an elective senate, consisting of twenty-eight 
members, whose ofBce was to preserve a just balance between 
the power of the kings and that of the people. Nothing 
could come before the assembly of the people which had not 
received the previous consent of the senate ; and, on the other 
hand, no action of the senate was effectual without the sanc- 
tion of the people. The kings w^ere continued, but were 
nothing more than hereditary presidents of the senate and 
generals of the army. 

3. Lycurgus divided the territory of the republic into 
thirty-nine thousand equal portions among the free citizens. 
For the purpose of banishing luxury, commerce was abol- 
ished. Gold and silver coin was prohibited, and iron money 
was substituted as a medium of exchange. A uniformity of 
dress was established, and all the citizens, not excepting the 
kings, w^ere required to take their principal meals at the public 
tables, from which all luxury and excess were excluded, and 
a kind of black broth was the chief article of food. Among 
some of the admirable ceremonies which prevailed at these 

Chapter III. — 1. What was Sparta? What is said of the govern- 
ment after the return of the Heraclidse ? — 2. What is said of Lycurgus ? 
With what was he invested ? What did he institute ? What is said of the 
kings ? — 3, How did Lycurgus divide the territory ? What is said of com- 
merce? Of gold and silver? Of iron money? Of dress? Of public tables? 



52 GREECE. 

public meals, the following is interesting and instructive. 
When the assembly was seated, the oldest man present, point- 
ing to the door, said, " No word spoken here goes out there." 
This wise regulation produced mutual confidence, and ren- 
dered the people unrestrained in conversation. 

4. The institutions of Lycurgus, though in many respects 
admirable, had still a number of grave defects. Infants, shortly 
after birth, underw*ent an examination, and those that were 
well formed were delivered to public nurses ; but all who 
were deformed or sickly were inhumanly exposed to perish. 
At the age of seven, children were sent to the public schools. 
The young were taught to pay the greatest respect to the 
aged and cherish an ardent love for their country, and the 
profession of arms was looked upon as the great business of 
life. Letters were only taught in so far as they were useful ; 
hence the Spartans, while they were distinguished for many 
heroic virtues, were never eminent for learning. No produc- 
tion from the pen of a native of Sparta has come down to 
modern times. These hardy people were accustomed to ex- 
press themselves in short, pithy sentences, so that even at 
the present time this style of speaking is called after them 
laconic — Laconia being one of the names of their countr}^ 

5. The youth were early inured to hardship ; and were 
accustomed to sleep on rushes, trained to the athletic exer- 
cises, and only supplied with plain and scanty food. They 
were even taught to steal whatever they could, provided 
they could accomplish the theft without being detected. 
Plutarch relates the fact of a boy who had stolen a fox and 
concealed it under his garments, and who actually suffered 
the animal to tear out his bowels, rather than discover the 
theft. The women of Lacedaemon were destitute of the 
milder virtues that most adorn the female character, and 
their manners were highly indelicate. Their education was 
intended to give them a masculine energy, and to fill them 
with admiration of military glory. Mothers rather rejoiced 
than wept when their sons fell nobly in battle. " Return 
with your shield or on your shield," was the injunction of a 
Spartan mother to her son, when he was going to meet the 
enemy. She meant that he should conquer or die. 



What Avas said by the oldest man present ? — 4, What is said of the 
institutions of Lycurgus? How were infants treated ? AVhat were the 
youn.o- tauuht to pay ? What is said of letters? How were they accus- 
tomed to speak '^ — 5. What is said of the youth ? Of the mariners of 
the women ? What is said or mothers ? 



GREECE. 53 

G. For five hundred years the institutions of Lycurgus 
continued in force. During this period the influence of 
Sparta was felt throughout Greece ; and her government 
acquired solidity, while the other states were torn by do- 
mestic dissensions. In the process of time, however, the 
severe manners and rigid virtues of her citizens began to 
relax; changes in her laws and institutions were finally in- 
troduced, particularly during the reign of Lysander, whose 
conquests filled the country with wealth. 

From this period luxury and avarice began to prevail, 
until Sparta, with the other states of Greece, sunk under the 
dominion of Philip, king of Macedon. 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. 



ATH'ENS, the capital of At'tica, w^as distinguished for 
its commerce, wealth, and magnificence, and as the seat 
of learning and the arts. The last king of Athens was Co'- 
drus, who sacrificed himself, for the good of his country, in 
a war with the Heraclidse. After his death, no one being- 
deemed worthy to succeed him, the regal government was 
abolished, and the state was governed by magistrates, styled 
archons. At first the office was for life, but it was after- 
wards reduced to a period of ten years ; and finally the 
archons, nine in number, were annually elected, and were 
possessed of equal authority. 

2. As these changes produced convulsions in the state, 
and rendered the condition of the people miserable, the 
Athenians appointed Dra'co, a man of stern and rigid prin- 
ciples, to prepare a code of written laws. His laws were 
characterized by extreme severity. Every crime was pun- 
ished with death. Draco being asked why he was so severe 
in his punishment, replied that the smallest offence deserved 
death, and that he had no higher penalty for the greatest 

6. How long did the institutions of Lycurgus continue ? In the pro- 
cess of time, what took place ? What is said of Sparta from this period ? 

Chapter IV. — 1. For what was Athens distinguished? After the 
death of Codrus, how was the state governed? What is said of the 
office of archon? — 2. What is said of Draco ? How were his laws distin- 
guished? What reply did he make when asked why he was so severe? 
5* 



54 GREECE. 

crime. The severity of these laws prevented them from 
being fully executed, and at length caused them to be 
entirely abolished, after a period of one hundred and fifty 
years. 

3. So'lon, one of the seven wise men of Greece, being 
raised to the archonship, was intrusted with the care of 
framing a new system of laws for his country. His dispo- 
sition was mild and condescending ; and, without attempt- 
ing to change the manners of his countrymen, he endeavored 
to accommodate his system to their prevailing customs, to 
moderate their dissensions, to restrain their passions, and to 
open a field for the growth of virtue. Of his laws he said, 
" If they are not the best possible, they are the best the 
Atheniaus are capable of receiving." 

4. Solon's system divided the people into four classes, 
according to their wealth. To the first three, composed of 
the richest citizens, he intrusted all the offices of the com- 
monvv^ealth. The fourth class, which was more numerous 
than the other three, had an equal right of suffrage in the 
public assembly, where all laws were framed and measures 
of state decreed; and by this regulation the balance of power 
was thrown in favor of the people. He instituted a senate 
composed of four hundred, and afterwards increased it to 
five hundred persons. He restored the court of the Are- 
op' agus, which had greatly fallen into disrepute, and com- 
mitted to it the supreme administration of justice. Com- 
merce and agriculture were encouraged. Industry and 
economy were enforced. And the father who had taught 
his son no trade could not claim a support from him in his 
old age. 

5. The manners of the Athe'nians formed a striking con- 
trast with those of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens the 
arts were highly esteemed ; at Sparta they were despised 
and neglected. At Athens peace was the natural state of 
the republic, and the refined enjoyments of life the aim of 
its citizens ; Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; 
her people made war the great business of life. Luxury 
characterized the Athenian, frugality the Spartan. They 
were both, however, equally jealous of their liberty and 
equally brave in war. 

3. What is said of Solon? What did he endeavor to accomplish? 
Of his laws, what did he say ? — 4. What is said of Solon's system ? Of 
the fourth class? What did he institute? What is said of commerce, 
etc. ?— 5. What was the striking contrast between the Athenians and the 
Lacedsemonians ? 



GREECE. 55 

6. Before the death of Solon, Pisistra^tus, a man of great 
wealth and eloquence, by courting the popular favor, raised 
himself to the sovereign power, which he and his sons re- 
tained for fifty years. 

He governed with great ability, encouraged the arts and 
sciences, and is said to have founded the first public library 
known in the world, and first collected the poems of Homer 
into one volume, which, before that time, were repeated in 
detached portions. 

Pisistratus transmitted his power to his sons, Hip'pias 
and Hippar'chus. They governed for some time with wisdom 
and moderation, but having, at length, abused their power, a 
conspiracy was formed against them, and their government 
was overthrown by Harmo'dius and Aristogit' on. Hip- 
parchus was slain. Hippias fled to Darius, king of Persia, 
who was then meditating the invasion of Greece. He was 
subsequently killed in the battle of Mar^athon, fighting against 
his countrymen. 



CHAPTER V. 



FROM THE INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS TO 
THE PELOPONNE'SIAN WAR.~B. C. 490 TO 431. 

THE period from the first invasion to the beginning of the 
Peloponnesian war is esteemed the most glorious in the 
history of Greece. The series of victories obtained by the 
inhabitants over the Persians are among the most splendid 
recorded in the annals of the world. The immediate cause 
which led to the invasion of Greece seems to have been to 
avenge the aid which the Athenians gave to the people of 
lo'nia, who attempted to throw off the yoke of Persia. 

2. Darius, King of Persia, having reduced the lonians, next 
turned his arms against the Greeks, their allies, with the design 
of making entire conquest of Greece. He despatched heralds 
to each of the Grecian states, demanding earth and water, 
which was an acknowledgment of his supremacy. Thebes 
and several of the other cities submitted to the demand ; but 

6. What is said of Pisistratus ? How did he govern ? What is said 
of Hipparchus and Hippias ? 

Chapter V. — 1. What is said of this period? What was the imme- 
diate cause which led to the invasion of Greece ? — 2. What is said of 
Darius ? 



56 GREECE. 

Athens and Sparta indignantly refused, and, seizing the 
heralds, they cast one into a pit and another into a well, and 
told them to take there their earth and water. 

3. Darius now commenced his hostile attack both by sea 
and land. The first Persian fleet, under tljje command of 
Mardo'nius, was wrecked in doubling the promontory of 
Athos, with a loss of no less than three hundred vessels ; a 
second, of six hundred sail, ravaged the Grecian islands; 
while an immense army, consisting of one hundred and ten 
thousand men, poured down impetuously on Attica. This 
formidable host was met by the Athenian army under the 
command of Milti'ades, on the plains of Mar'athon, where 
the Persians were signally defeated and fled with precipita- 
tion to their ships. The loss of the Persians amounted to 
six thousand three hundred ; while the Athenian army, which 
did not exceed ten thousand men, lost only one hundred and 
ninety-two. A soldier covered with wounds ran to Athens 
with the news, and having only strength sufficient to say, 
" Rejoice I the victory is ours," fell down and expired. 

4. Miltiades, the illustrious general by whose valor this 
great victory was gained, received the most inhuman treat- 
ment from his ungrateful countrymen. Being accused of 
treason for an unsuccessful attack on the isle of Paros, he 
was condemned to death ; this punishment, however, was com- 
muted into a fine of fifty talents.* In consequence of his 
being unable to pay this amount he was cast into prison, 
where he died in a few^ days of the wounds he received in the 
defence of his country. 

5. The Athenians at this time were divided into two par- 
ties, under their respective leaders — Aristi'des, the advocate 
of aristocracy, and Themis' tocles, of democracy. Aristides, 
who on account of his integrity was called the Just, through 
the intrigues of his great rival was banished for ten years 
by the Ostracism. It happened, while the people were giving 
their votes for his exile, that a certain citizen, who was un- 
able to write, and who did not know him personally, broujGrht 
him a shell and asked him to write the name of Aristides 
upon it. " Why, what harm has Aristides ever done you ? " 

* About 150,000. 



How did Athens and Sparta treat the heralds? — 3. What is said of 
the first Persian fleet ? What was the number of the second fleet ? By 
whom was this host met ? What was the loss of the Persians? Of the 
Athenian army? What is said of an Athenian soldier? — 4. What is 
related of Miltiades, the illustrious general ? 



GREECE. 57 

said he. "No harm at all," replied the citizen, "but I can- 
not bear to hear him continually called the just." Aristides 
smiled, and taking the shell wrote his own name upon it, 
and went into banishment. 

6. On the death of Darius, his son Xerx'es, who succeeded 
to the Persian throne, resolved to prosecute the war which 
his father had undertaken against Greece. Having spent four 
years in making the necessary preparations, he collected an 
army, according to Herodotus, numbering over two millions 
of fighting men ; and including the women and retinue of at- 
tendants, the whole multitude is said to have exceeded five 
millions of persons. His fleet consisted of more than twelve 
hundred galleys of war, besides three thousand transports of 
various kinds. 

T. Having arrived at Mount Athos, he caused a canal, navi- 
gable for his largest vessels, to be cut through the isthmus 
which joins that mountain to the continent, and for the con- 
veyance of his army he ordered two bridges of boats to be 
extended across the HeFlespont, at a point where it measures 
seven furlongs in breadth. The first of these bridges was 
destroyed by a tempest, on which account Xerxes, in trans- 
ports of rage, ordered the sea to be scourged with three 
hundred stripes, and to be chained by casting into it a pair 
of fetters. The bridge being again repaired, the army com- 
menced its march, and occupied seven days and seven nights 
in passing the straits, while those appointed to conduct the 
march lashed the soldiers with whips, in order to quicken 
their speed. 

8. Xerxes having taken a position on an eminence, from 
which he could view the vast assemblage he had collected, 
the plain covered with his troops, and the sea overspread 
with his vessels, at first called himself the most favored of 
mortals. But when he reflected that in the short space of a 
hundred years, not one of the many thousands then before 
him would be alive, he burst into tears, at the instability of 
all human things ! 

9. Most of the smaller cities of Greece submitted at the de- 
mand of the Persian monarch ; of those which united to op- 
pose him, Athens and Sparta took the lead. The Persian 
army advanced directly towards Athens, bearing down all 

6. What is said of Xerxes ? What was the number of his array ? Of 
his fleet? — 7. Having arrived at Mount Athos, what did he cause? — 
7. What did he order? How long was the army in passing the straits? 
— 8. What is now related of Xerxes ? — 9. What is said of the Persian 



58 GREECE. 

before it until it came to the pass of Thermopylae, on the east 
of Thes'saly. On this spot Leon'idas, one of the kin^rs of 
Sparta, with only six thousand men, had taken his position 
in order to oppose its pro.o-ress. Xerxes having arrived at 
this place, sent a herald to Leonidas, commanding- him te-<le- 
liver up his arms, to whom the noble Spartan replied with 
laconic brevity, " Come and take them," For two days the 
Persians endeavored to force their passage through the defile, 
and were repulsed with great slaughter; but having at length 
discovered a secret path leading to an eminence which over- 
looked the Grecian camp, and having gained this advanta- 
geous post, under the cover of the night, the defence of 
the pass became impossible. 

10. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, dismissed all 
his allies, retaining only three hundred of his countrymen, 
and, in obedience to a law of Sparta, which forbade her soldiers, 
under any circumstances, to flee from an enemy, resolved to 
devote his life for the good of his country. Animated by his 
example, the three hundred Spartans under his command 
determined to abide the issue of the conflict. Leonidas fell 
among the first, bravely contending against the thousands of 
his enemies; of the three hundred heroes, only one escaped to 
bear to Sparta the nev»^s, that her patriotic sons had died in 
her defence ; and this survivor, after his return, felt himself 
so disgraced at being alive, that he perished by his own hand. 
Aristode'mus, another of the band, being absent when the 
battle occurred, was considered so much disgraced by this 
accident that, when he afterwards distinguished himself at 
the battle of Platae'a, he was nevertheless deemed unworthy 
of any share of the spoils. A monument was afterwards 
erected on the spot, to commemorate this memorable battle, 
bearing this inscription, written by Simonides : 

"Go, stranger, and to listening Spartans tell, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we fell." 

11. Xerxes having forced the pass of Thermopylse, di- 
rected his march towards Athens, laying waste the country 
as he advanced with fire and sword. The Athenians, having 
conveyed their women and children, for safety, to the islands, 
retired to their fleet, leaving their city in the hands of the 

On this spot who opposed its progress? What reply did he make? 
How long were the Persians stopped?— 10. What did Leonidas now 
do? Of the three hundred how many escaped? What inscription was 
afterwards placed upon the monument? II. Where did Xerxes now 
march ? What is said of the Athenians? 



GREECE. 59 

Persians, by whom it was pillaged and burnt. The only re- 
source left to the Greeks was placed in their fleet ; therefore 
they immediately commenced preparations for a naval en- 
gag-ement. Their fleet consisted of only three hundred and 
eighty sail, under the command of Themistocles and Aristides, 
while that of the Persians amounted to twelve hundred ves- 
sels. The engagement took place in the straits of SaVamis, 
which resulted in the total defeat of the Persian armament. 
Xerxes, who had seated himself upon an eminence, that he 
might behold the engagement, having seen the complete dis- 
comfiture of his squadron, fled with precipitation to the shores 
of the Hellespont. But, to his great mortification, he found 
that the bridge of boats which he left had been destroyed by 
a tempest ; terrified, however, at the valor displayed by the 
Greeks, his impatience would admit of no delay ; he therefore 
crossed the Hellespont in a fishing-boat to his own dominions. 

12. The Persian monarch left Mardonius, with three hun- 
dred thousand men, to complete the conquest of Greece. This 
army, early in the following season, was met at Platasa, by 
the combined forces oi Athens and Sparta, consisting of one 
hundred and ten thousand men, under the command of Aris- 
tides and Pausanias, and was defeated with tremendous 
slaughter, Mardonius himself being numbered among the 
slain. On the same day the Greeks engaged and destroyed 
the remains of the Persian fleet, at the promontory of 
Myc'ale, near Eph'esus. The Persian army was now com- 
pletely destroyed, and Xerxes, having been frustrated in all 
his ambitious views, was soon afterwards assassinated, and 
was succeeded in the Persian throne by his son, Artaxerx'es 
Longim' anus, b. c. 464. 

13. At this period, the national character of the Greeks 
was at its highest elevation. The common danger had anni- 
hilated all petty jealousies between the states, and had given 
them union as a nation. Encouraged by their late victories, 
they resolved to bid defiance to the Persians ; and undertook 
to aid the lonians, who had thrown off the yoke of Persia. 
The combined forces of Sparta and Athens, under the com- 
mand of Pausan'ias and Ci'mon, expelled the Persians from 
Thrace, destroyed their fleet on the coast of PamphyFia, took 

Who commanded their fleet? What engagement took place? What is 
said of Xerxes? How did he cross the Hellespont? — 12. What did the 
Persian monarch leave? By whom was this army met? and what was 
the issue of the battle? On the same day what took place? What was 
the end of Xerxes? — 13. At this period what is said of the Greeks? 
What did they undertake ? What did they effect ? 



60 GREECE. 

the island qf Cyprus, and having reduced and plundered the 
city of Byzan'tium, they returned with immense booty. 

14. Pausanias, who had borne so distinguished a part in 
the late war, now became intoxicated with glory and power, 
and aspired to the sovereign dominion of Greece. For this 
purpose he wrote to Xerxes, offering to effect the subjuga- 
tion of his country, and to hold it under the dominion of 
Persia, on the condition of receiving his daughter in mar- 
riage. The treachery was detected before it could be carried 
into execution, and Pausanias, being condemned by the 
Eph'ori, took refuge in the temple of Miner 'va, where the 
sanctity of the place secured him from violence. Being un- 
able to escape from this asylum, he soon perished by hunger. 
Themistocles, the great Athenian commander, being accused 
of participating in the treason of Pausanias, was banished 
from his country by the law of ostracism. The exiled general 
proceeded to Asia, wrote a letter to the Persian monarch, in 
which he said, " I, Themistocles, come to thee, who have 
done thy house most ill of all the Greeks, while I was of 
necessity repelling the invasion of thy father, but yet more 
good, when I was in safety, and his return was endangered." 
He was permitted to live in Persia in great splendor, but 
being- required by Artaxerxes to take up arms against the 
Greeks, rather than sully his former glory, by engaging in a 
war against his native country, although that country had been 
ungrateful towards him, he chose to suffer a voluntary death. 

15. Aristides, after the banishment of TJiemistocles, directed 
the affairs of Athens, and upon his death, which happened 
shortly afterwards, Gi'mon, the son of lliltiades, one of the 
most illustrious statesmen and warriors 'of Greece, became 
the most prominent man in the republic. He gained tw^o 
important victories over the Persians on the same day, the 
one by sea and the other by land, near the river Eury'medon, 
in Asia Minor. But it was the characteristic of the Athe- 
nians to treat their most distinguished citizens with ingrati- 
tude. Cimon, through the influence of faction, was banished 
by the ostracism, while Per'icles, a young man of exalted 
talents and extraordinary eloquence, succeeded in gaining the 
ascendancy at Athens. 

16. Cimon, however, after a banishment of five years, was 

14. What is said of Pausanias? Where did he take refuge? 
What is related of Themistocles? W^liat was his end? — 15. What is 
said of Aristides and Cimon? After the banishment of Cimon who 
gained the ascendancy at Athens? — 16. Was Cimon again recalled? 
What is said of the Persian war ? W^hat were the conditions of peace ? 



GREECE. 61 

recalled, and, being restored to the command of the army, 
gained several other important victories over the Persians, 
and finally died of a wound he received at the siege of Cic'- 
tium, in Cyprus. Shortly after this event the Persian war, 
which had lasted, with some slight intermissions, for about 
fifty years, was brought to a termination. Artaxerxes, weary 
of a war that only brought disgrace upon his arms and 
weakened his resources, sued for peace, which was granted 
on condition that he should give freedom to all the Grecian 
cities in Asia, and that no Persian ship of war should enter 
the Grecian seas. 

17. After the death of Cimon, Pericles rose to the summit 
of power. He governed Athens with almost arbitrary sway 
for nearly forty years. He adorned the city with master-pieces 
of architecture, sculpture, and painting, patronized the arts 
and sciences, celebrated splendid games and festivals, and 
his administration forms an era of splendor and magnificence 
in the history of Greece. In all his public acts he displayed 
the greatest moderation and prudence, and Hie end of all his 
projects seems to have been the glory of his country and the 
happiness of his fellow-citizens. He died of a plague which 
raged at Athens. A little before his death, hearing some of 
his friends speaking of his achievements, he said, '' You have 
forgotten the most glorious action of my life, which is, that 
I never caused a single citizen to put on mourning." 



CHAPTER yi. 



FEOM THE BEGINNING OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO 
THE REIGN OF PHILIP OF MAC E DON— B. C. 431 TO 360. 

A FEW years before the death of Pericles, the Pelopon- 
nesian war began. This long and desperate struggle 
grew out of the ceaseless rivalship between Athens and 
Sparta ; and for twenty-seven years, with little intermission, 
it inflicted the deepest calamities upon the Grecian States. 
The orio^in of this war seems to have been as follows : The 



17, What is said of Pericles ? In all his public acts what did he 
display ? How did he die ? What did he say before his death ? 

Chapter VI. — 1. W^hat was commenced previous to the death of 
Pericles ? What was the origin of this war ? 
6 



62 GREECE. 

inhabitants of Corcy'ra, while engaged in a contest with the 
Corin'thians, applied for aid to the Athenians, who readily 
granted them assistance ; this conduct on the part of the 
latter was deemed a violation of the treaty of the confederate 
states of Peloponnesus, and war was immediately declared 
against Athens. 

2. Sparta, joined by all the Peloponne'sian states, except 
Ar'gos, which remained neutral, took the lead against the 
Athenians, who had but few allies. The Peloponnesian forces, 
under the command of Archida'mus, the king of Sparta, 
amounted to sixty thousand, while the Athenian army did not 
exceed thirty-two thousand, but the fleet of the latter was 
much the superior. During the first year of the war the con- 
federate forces entered Attica, laid waste the country, and 
besieged Athens ; in the second year, the city was visited by 
a dreadful plague, which carried off several thousands, and 
among its victims was the renowned Pericles. The pesti- 
lence, however, did not arrest the progress of the war, which 
continued to rage with unabated fury. 

3. After the death of Pericles, Cle'on grew into power, 
and for a short time directed the Athenian counsels ; but he 
was slain at Amphep'otis, in a battle with Bras'idas, the 
Spartan general, who was also mortally wounded in the same 
engagement. After this event, a treaty of peace was con- 
cluded between Athens and Sparta, through the influence of 
Nic'ias, who now became the popular leader at Athens. 
Peace, however, was of short duration, war being again de- 
clared, through the influence of Alcibi'ades, one of the 
greatest of the Athenian generals, and the most accomplished 
orator of his time. 

4. An expedition was next sent against the island of Sicily, 
under the command of Alcibiades and Nicias, but the former, 
being accused of misconduct, was recalled, and the latter was 
defeated and slain. Alcibiades, after some time, was again 
placed at the head of the Athenian army, and gained several 
important victories, but falling a second time into disrepute, 
he was banished from his country, and took refuge in Asia, 
where he died. 

5. Lysan'der, the Lacedaemonian general, having defeated 



2. What state took the lead against Athens ? During the first year 
of the war what took place? During the second? — 3. After the death 
of Pericles, who grew into power? What was his end? After this 
event what took place? — 4. What expedition was next undertaken? 
What is said of Alcibiades ? — 5. What is said of Lysander ? 



GREECE. bo 

the Athenian fleet, at j^gos-Potamos, on the Hellespont, re- 
duced Athens to the last extremity, by blockading the city 
by sea and land. The wretched Athenians were at length 
compelled to accept the most humiliating terms of peace ; 
they agreed to demolish their port, to limit their fleet to 
twelve ships, and to undertake for the future no military 
enterprise, but under the command of the Lacedsemonians. 
Thus ended the Peloponnesian war, by the submission of 
Athens and the triumph of Sparta, which now became the 
leading power in Greece, b. c. 403. 

6. Lysander, after the reduction of Athens, abolished the 
popular government of that state, and established in its place 
an oligarchy, consisting of thirty magistrates, with absolute 
power, who, from their atrocious acts of cruelty, were called 
the Thirty Tyrants. In the space of eight months we are 
told that fifteen hundred citizens fell victims to their avarice 
and vengeance, while many others fled from their country. 
At length Thrasybu^Ius, aided by a band of patriots, expelled 
the tyrants from the seat of their power, and restored the 
democratic form of government. 

7. An event, which happened about this time, reflected in- 
delible disgrace upon the fickle-minded Athenians, which was 
the persecution and death. of the illustrious philosopher, 
Soc'rates, a name at once the glory and the reproach of his 
country. The sophists, whose futile logic he derided and 
exposed, represented him as an enemy to the religion of his 
country, because he attempted to introduce the knowledge 
of a Supreme Being, the Creator and Ruler of the universe, 
and to inculcate the belief in a future state of retribution ; 
and being accused, moreover, of corrupting the youth, he was 
condemned by the assembly of Athens to die by poison. 

8. He made his defence in person, with all the manly for- 
titude of conscious innocence ; but the majority of his judges, 
being his personal enemies, determined on his ruin. During 
the forty days of his imprisonment, he conducted himself with 
the greatest dignity ; refused to escape when an opportunity 
offered ; conversed with his friends on subjects of moral 
philosophy, particularly the immortality of the soul; and 
when the appointed time arrived drank the fatal cup of hem- 

Of the Athenians ? What were the terms of peace ? How did the 
war end? — 6. What did Lysander do? In eight months, how many 
citizens perished ? What did Thrasybiilus do? — 7. What events took 
place at this time? How did the Sophists represent him? Why? — 
8. How did he make his defence? What is said of him during his im- 
prisonment ? 



64 GREECE. 

lock, and died with the utmost composure. After the fatal 
deed was accomplished, the Athenians began to see the sad 
error into which they had fallen. The judges and accusers 
of Socrates were either put to death or banished from the 
city ; a brazen statue was erected to his memory, the work- 
manship of the celebrated Lysip'pus. Thus these fickle an- 
cients endeavored to repair, in some degree, the injustice they 
had permitted against the most virtuous of their citizens. 

9. On the death of Darius, the Persian throne was left to 
his son, Artaxerxes II., but his younger brother, Cyrus, at- 
tempted to dethrone him, and for that purpose he employed 
about thirteen thousand Grecian troops ; but both Cyrus and 
the Grecian commander were slain in a battle, w^hich was 
fought at Gunax'a, near Babylon. The remainder of the 
Grecian army, which numbered about ten thousand, under 
the command of Xen'ophon, effected a most extraordinary 
retreat, traversing a hostile country of sixteen hundred miles 
in extent, from Babylon to the shores of the Euxine. This 
celebrated return, usually called the retreat of Ten Thousand, 
is beautifully described by Xenophon himself, and is regarded 
as one of the most extraordinary exploits in military history. 

10. The Grecian colonies in Asia having taken part with 
Cyrus, were assisted by the Spartans, under their king 
Agesila'us. The Persian monarch, however, by means of 
bribes, induced Athens and other of the Grecian states, jeal- 
ous of the power of the Lacedoemonians, to enter into a 
league against them. Agesilaus was obliged to return in 
order to protect his own dominions. He defeated the con- 
federate forces in the battle of Corone'a, but the Spartan 
fleet was defeated by the Athenians under Conon near 
Cni'dus. A treaty of peace was finally concluded, by which 
it was agreed that all the Grecian cities of Asia should be- 
long to Persia, and all others should be independent, with 
the exception of the islands of Lemnos, Scy'ros, and Imbros, 
which should remain under the dominion of Athens. 

11. While Athens and Sparta were visibly tending to de- 
cline, Thebes emerged from obscurity, and rose for a time to 
a degree of splendor eclipsing all the other states of Greece. 
The Spartans, jealous of its growing prosperity, took advan- 

How did he die? What is said of the Athenians?— 9. What did Cy- 
rus attempt ? What did the remainder of the army effect after this 
event? — 10. By whom were the Grecian colonies assisted? What did 
the Persians effect by bribes ? What is said of Agesilaus ? What battles 
were fought? What was agreed by the treaty of peace? — 11. What 
state emerged from obscurity ? What did the Spartans do ? 



GREECE. 65 

tage of some internal dissension and seized upon the citadel. 
Pelop'idas, with a number of Thebans, fled for protection to 
Athens, where he planned the deliverance of his country. 
Disguising himself and twelve of his friends as peasants, he 
entered Thebes in the evening, and, joining a patriotic party 
of citizens, they surprised the leaders of the usurpation 
amidst the tumult of a feast^ and put them all to death ; and 
pursuing his success, in conjunction with his friend Epami- 
non'das, Vv^ho shared with him the glory of the enterprise, 
he finally succeeded in expelling the Lacedagmonian garrison 
from the Theban territory. 

12. A war necessarily ensued between Thebes and Sparta. 
The Theban army, under the command of Pelopidas and 
Epaminondas, gained the memorable battle of Leuctra, in 
which they lost only three hundred men, while the Spartan 
loss amounted to four thousand, together with their king, 
Cleom'brotns, who was numbered among the slain. The vic- 
torious Thebans, under Epaminondas, joined by many of the 
other Grecian states, entered the territories of Lacedasmon, 
and overran the country with fire and sword. The Spartans, 
who had long boasted that their women had never beheld 
the smoke of an enemy's camp, were mortified to see the 
invaders now encamped within the very sight of their capital. 

13. Having humbled the power of Sparta, the Theban 
commander returned with his victorious army to his native 
city ; but the war being again renewed, he gained another 
great victory over the Lacedaemonians and Athenians at the 
battle of Mantine'a. In the moment of victory he fell mor- 
tally wounded ; and with the fall of Epaminondas, who was 
equally eminent as a philosopher, statesman, and general, fell 
the glory of his country. 

The battle of Mantinea was followed by a peace between 
all the Grecian states, by which each city established its in- 
dependence. 

What is said of Pelopidas? — 12. What ensued? What battle did the 
Theban army gain ? What was the loss on both sides ? What is said 
of the Spartans ? — 1 3. What is said of the Theban commander ? What 
followed the battle of Mantinea ? 

6* E 



GREECE. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PHILIP OF MACE DON. TEE EXPLOITS AND DEATH OF 
ALEXANDER.— B. C. 360 TO 324. 

GREECE was now in the most abject situation. The 
spirit of patriotism seemed utterly lost and military 
glory at an end. Athens, at this time the most prominent 
state, was sunk in luxury and pleasure ; yet she was dis- 
tinguished for her cultivation of literature and the arts. 
Sparta, no less changed from the simplicity of her ancient 
manners, and her power weakened by the new independence 
of the state of Peloponnesus, was in no capacity to attempt 
a recovery of her former greatness. Such was the situation 
of Greece when Philip of Macedon formed the ambitious 
design of bringing the whole country under his dominion. 

2. The kingdom of Macedon had existed upwards of four 
hundred years, but it had not risen to any considerable emi- 
nence. It formed no part of the Greek confederacy, and had no 
voice in the Amphictyonic council. The inhabitants boasted 
of the same origin of the Greeks, but were considered by the 
latter as barbarians. Philip, who laid the foundation of the 
Macedo'nian Empire, or, as it is sometimes called, the Grecian 
Empire, because Greece in its most extensive sense included 
Macedonia, was sent as a hostage to Thebes, at the age of' 
ten years, where he enjoyed the advantage of an excellent edu- 
cation under Epaminondas. At the age of twenty-four years 
he ascended the throne of Macedon, by the popular voice, in 
violation of the natural right of the nearer heirs to the crown. 

3. Philip was possessed of great military and political 
talents, and was equally distinguished for his consummate 
artifice and address. In order to accomplish the subjugation 
of the Grecian states, he cherished dissensions among them, 
and employed agents in each with a view of having every 
public measure directed to his advantage. The attempt of 
the Pho'cians to occupy and cultivate a tract of land conse- 
crated to the Delphian Apollo, gave rise to a contest called 
the Sacred War, in which most of the states of Greece were 

Chapter VII. — 1. What is said now of Greece? Of Athens? Of 
Sparta?— 2. How long had the kingdom of Macedon existed? What 
is said of the inhabitants? Of Philip? At what age did he ascend the 
throne of Macedon ?— 3. What did he possess? What did he cherish? 
What gave rise to the Sacred War ? 



GREECE. 67 

involved. The The'bans, Thessa'lians, and other states un- 
dertook to punish the Phocians, who were supported chiefly 
by Athens and Sparta. 

4. Philip proposed to act as arbitrator of the matter in 
dispute, and procured himself to be elected a member of the 
Amphictyonic Council. Shortly after this event, the Loc'rians 
having encroached upon the consecrated ground of Delphi, 
and having refused to obey the order of the Amphictyonic 
Council, Philip was invited to vindicate their authority by 
force of arms. Philip began his hostilities by invading 
Phocis, the key to the territory of Attica. JEs'chines, the 
orator, moved by a bribe, endeavored to quiet the alarms of 
the Athenians, by ascribing to him a design only of punish- 
ing the sacrilege and vindicating the cause of Apollo. De- 
mos'thenes, with the true spirit of a patriot, exposed the 
artful designs of the invader, and, with most animated elo- 
quence, roused his countrymen to a vigorous effort for the 
preservation of their liberties. The attempt, however, was 
unsuccessful ; the battle of Cheronae'a decided the fate of 
Greece, and subjected all the states to the dominion of the 
king of Macedon, b. c. Sol. 

5. It was not the policy of the conqueror to treat the 
several states as a vanquished people ; they were allowed to 
retain their separate independent governments, while he re- 
served for himself the direction and control of all national 
measures. Convoking a general council of the states, he 
laid before them his project for the invasion of Persia, and 
was appointed commander-in-chief of the forces of all the 
Grecian states. On the eve of this great enterprise, Philip 
was assassinated by Pausa'nias, the captain of his guards, 
while solemnizing the nuptials of his daughter, in the forty- 
seventh year of his age. The news of the event caused the 
most tumultuous joy among the Athenians, who indulged the 
vain hope of again recovering their liberty. But the vision- 
ary prospect was never realized. The spirit of the nation 
was gone, and in all their subsequent revolutions they only 
changed their masters. 

6. On the death of Philip, his son Alexander, surnamed 

4. What did Philip propose? After this event what took place? 
How did he commence hostilities ? What is said of ..^schines and De- 
mosthenes? What is said of the battle of Cheronaea? — 5. What was 
the policy of the conqueror ? Having convoked a council of the states, 
what did he lay before them ? On the eve of this enterprise what hap- 
pened to Philip ? What did the news of this event cause among the 
Athenians? — 6. Who succeeded Philip? 



6S GREECE. 

the Great, succeeded to the throne of Macedon, at the age of 
twenty years. The young king, having reduced to subjection 
some of the states to the north of Macedon, turned the whole 
power of his arms against the revolted states of Greece. He 
defeated the Thebans with immense slaughter, caused their 
city to be razed to the ground, and thirty thousand of its in- 
habitants to be sold as slaves. These acts of severity so in- 
timidated the other states of Greece that they immediately 
submitted to his dominion. Alexander then assembled the 
deputies of the Grecian states at Cor'inth, and renewed the 
proposal of invading Persia, and was appointed, as his father 
had been, the commander-in-chief of their united forces. 

7. With an army of thirty thousand foot and five thousand 
horse, with the sum of only seventy talents and provisions 
for a single month, he crossed the Hel'lespont, and traversing 
Phry'gia, proceeded to the site of Troy and visited the tomb 
of Achilles, whom he pronounced the most fortunate of men 
in having Pat'rocles for his friend and Ho'mer for his pane- 
gyrist. Darius Godoma'nus, resolving at once to crush the 
youthful hero, met him on the banks of the Grani'cus, with 
an army of one hundred thousand foot and twenty thousand 
horse. Here an obstinate battle was fought, in which the 
Persian monarch was defeated with a loss, according to Plu'- 
tarch, of twenty-two thousand men, while the Macedonian 
loss was only thirty-four. In this battle, Alexander escaped 
narrowly with his life — being attacked by an officer, who was 
about to cleave his head with a battle-axe, when the blow 
was prevented by Cly'tus, who cut off the hand of the officer 
with his cimiter, and thus saved the life of his sovereign. 

8. The success of this battle was important to Alexander, 
as it put him in possession of Sar'dis with all its riches. He 
generously gave the citizens their liberty, and permitted them 
to live under their own laws. He soon after took Mile'tus, 
Halicarnas'sus, and other important places. The next im- 
portant victory was obtained in the great battle of Issus. 
The Persian army, consisting of six hundred thousand men, 
was defeated with prodigious slaughter, no less than one 
hundred and ten thousand being killed, while the Macedo- 
nians numbered only four hundred and fifty among the slain. 

How did he treat the Thebans ? Having assembled the deputies of 
the Grecian states, what proposals did he renew ? — 7. What was the 
number of his army ? Where did he proceed ? By whom and where 
was he met ? What wa3 the issue of the battle and the loss on both 
sides? In this battle what is said of Alexander? — 8 What places did 
he next take ? Where was the next victory obtained ? What was the 
number of the Persian army ? The number of the slain on both sides ? 



GREECE. 69 

The mother, wife, and two daughters of Darius fell into the 
hands of the conqueror, who treated them with the greatest 
delicacy and respect. Darius, on hearing of the kindness of 
Alexander towards his family, offered for their ransom the 
sum of ten thousand talents — about $10,000,000 — and pro- 
posed a treaty of peace and alliance, with the further offer of 
his daughter in marriage, and all the country between tlie 
Euphra'tes and the ^'gean sea. 

9. When the offer was laid before Alexander's council, Par- 
me'nio is reported to have said, ''If I were Alexander, I 
would accept the terms." '' And so would I," replied Alex- 
ander, " were I Parmenio.^^ After this he overran Syria, 
took Damascus, and laid siege to Tyre, which surrendered 
after a noble defence of seven months. On this occasion, the 
conqueror exercised an act of barbarous cruelty by causing 
two thousand citizens of Tyre to be crucified, besides all those 
who were put to the sword or sold into slavery. He then 
directed his march towards Jerusalem, which he entered with- 
out opposition. Having taken the cit}^ of Gaza, he inhumanly 
sold ten thousand of its inhabitants into slavery, and dragged 
Betis, its illustrious defender, at the wheel of his chariot, in 
imitation of Achilles after the taking of Troy. 

10. Alexander next proceeded to Egypt, which readily sub- 
mitted to his arms ; and, with incredible fatigues, he led his 
army through the deserts of Libya to visit the temple of 
Jupiter- Ammon, and caused himself to be proclaimed the son 
of that deity. On his return he commenced the building 
of the city of Alexandria, afterwards the capital of Lower 
Egypt, and, for a time, one of the greatest commercial cities 
in the world. He is said to have founded twenty other cities 
during the course of his conquests. Returning from Egypt, 
he again received proposals from Darius, who offered to sur- 
render to him the whole of his dominions to the west of the 
Euphrates ; but he haughtily rejected the offer, saying, that 
'' the world could no more admit of two masters than of two 
suns." 

11. Having crossed the Euphrates, he was met at the vil- 

Who fell into the hands of the conqueror? How were they treated? 
What did Darius offer for their ransom ? — 9. When the offer was laid 
before the council, what was said by Parraenio, and what was Alexan- 
der's reply ? After the siege of Tyre what act of cruelty did he exer- 
cise? Having taken the city of Gaza what did he do? — 10. Where did 
he next proceed ? On his return what city did he commence ? What 
reply did he make to the proposals of Darius? — 11. Where was he met 
by Darius ? 



70 GREECE. 

lage of Arbe'la by Darius, at the head of seven hundred 
thousand men. A dreadful battle was fought, in which the 
Persians were defeated, with a loss of three hundred thousand 
men, while that of Alexander was only about five hundred. 
This great conflict decided the fate of Persia. Darius first 
escaped to Media and afterwards into Bac'tria, where he was 
betrayed by Bessus, the satrap of that province, and murdered; 
and shortly after this event the whole Persian empire sub- 
mitted to the conqueror. 

12. Alexander now projected the conquest of India, and 
having penetrated beyond the Hydas'pes, defeated Po'rns, 
the illustrious king of that country. He still continued his 
march to the East ; but when he arrived at the banks of the 
Gan'ges, his soldiers seeing no end to their toils, refused to 
proceed any further and demanded that they might be per- 
mitted to return to their country. Finding it impossible to 
overcome their reluctance, he returned to the In'dus, and 
pursuing his course southward by that river, he arrived at 
the ocean, and, sending his fleet to the Persian Gulf, he led 
his army across the desert to Persep'olis, which, in a fit of 
frenzy, he ordered to be set on fire. From Persepolis he re- 
turned to Babylon, which he chose as the seat of his Asiatic 
empire. Here, giving himself up to every excess, he was 
seized with a violent fever, brought on by extreme intem- 
perance, and thus died Alexander the Great, in the thirty- 
third year of his age, and thirteenth of his reign, b. c. 324. 

13. Perceiv^ing that his end was approaching, he raised 
himself upon his elbow and presented his dying hand to his 
soldiers to kiss. Being asked to whom he left his empire, he 
answered, "To the most worthy." Alexander was the most 
renowned hero of antiquity. He possessed talents which 
might have rendered him distino-uished as a statesman and a 
benefactor of mankind, but it was to his military exploits 
alone that he is entitled to the surname of Great. In the early 
part of his career he was distinguished for self-government, 
and exhibited many noble and generous traits of character ; 
but when intoxicated with his extraordinary success, he gave 
himself up to unbounded indulgence and to deeds of cruelty 

What ensued ? What was the loss on both sides ? What was the fate 
of Darius? — 12. What did Alexander next project? When he arrived 
on the banks of the Ganges what happened? Where did he die? 
What was his age and the length of his reign?— 13. Perceiving that 
his end was approaching what did he do? What is said of Alexan- 
der ? In the early part of his career ? When intoxicated with suc- 
cess ? 



GREECE. 71 

and ingratitude. He caused Par^nenio, his most distinguished 
general, who had assisted him in gaining all his victories, to 
be assassinated on mere suspicion. His friend Cly'tus, who 
had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus, he struck 
dead upon the spot, because he contradicted him when heated 
with wine. He caused the philosopher Callis'tlienes to be 
put to death for refusing to pay him divine honors.* 



CHAPTER Vlir. 



FROM THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER TO THE SUBJUGATION 
OF GREECE BY THE ROMANS.— B. C. 324 TO 146. 

ALEXANDER having named no successor, his vast em- 
pire was divided into thirty-three governments, and dis- 
tributed among as many of the principal officers. Hence arose 
a series of intrigues, fierce and sanguinary wars, which re- 
sulted in the total extinction of every member of Alexander's 
family, and finally terminated in a new division of the empire 
into four kingdoms, namely, that of Egypt under Ptolemy ; 
Macedo'nia, including Greece, under Cassan'der ; Thrace, 
together with Bithyn'ia, under Lysima'chus ; and Sj^ria, 
under Seleu'cus. 

2, From the period of Alexander's death, the history of 
the Grecian states, to the time of their subjugation by the 
Romans, presents only a series of uninteresting revolutions. 
When the news of this event reached Athens, Demosthenes 
once more made a noble effort to vindicate the national free- 
dom, and to arouse his countrymen to shake off the yoke of 
Macedon. His counsels so far prevailed that the Greeks 
formed a confederacy for the purpose of recovering their 
liberty. But they were finally defeated by Antip'ater, and 
Athens was obliged to purchase a peace by the sacrifice of 
ten of her public speakers, among whom the renowned orator 
Demosthenes was included. But to avoid falling into the 
hands of his enemies, he put an end to his own life by taking 
poison. 

* See Biography of Eminent Personages. 

Whom did he cause to be assassinated ? Whom did he strike dead ? 

Chapter VIII. — 1. How was the empire divided ? What arose ? Name 
the four chief empires. — 2. From Alexander's death what is said of the 
history of the Grecian states. When the news reached Athens what 
did Demosthenes do ? What was his end ? 



72 GREECE. 

3. Under the administration of Polysper'chon, who suc- 
ceeded Antipater in the government of Macedon, indepen- 
dence for a short time was restored to the Grecian states. 
Scenes of turbulence were soon renewed among the Athe- 
nians ; they put to death many of the friends of Antipater, 
and among the rest was the venerable Pho'cion, now upwards 
of eighty years of age. He was eminent in his public char- 
acter and private virtues, and had been forty-five times gover- 
nor of Athens. To a friend who lamented his fate, he said, 
" This is only what I long expected. It is thus that Athens 
has rewarded her most illustrious citizens." 

Cassander, who succeeded Polysperchon, appointed De- 
met'rius Phale'reus governor of Athens. Under his wise 
administration, which continued twelve years, the city en- 
joyed a considerable degree of prosperity, and the Athenians, 
to testify their gratitude, erected no less than three hundred 
and sixty statues to his memory. 

4. The last effort made to revive the expiring liberty of 
Greece, was the formation of the Achae'an League, which 
was a union of twelve of the smaller states for that object. The 
government of this confederacy was committed to Ara'tus, a 
young man of eminent abilities, who took the title of praetor. 
He formed the noble design of liberating his country from 
the dominion of Macedon, and establishing the independence 
of all Greece ; but the jealousy of some of the principal 
states, particularly of Sparta, rendered the plan abortive. 

Aratus was succeeded by Philopoe'men, who triumphed over 
the Spartans and ^to'lians, but in an expedition against the 
Messe'nians, who had revolted, he was defeated and slain. 
Philopoemen was styled the "last of the Greeks," because 
after him Greece produced no leader worthy of her former 
glory. 

5. The Macedonians having declared war against the ^to- 
lians, the latter applied for aid to the Romans, who had now 
become the most powerful nation in the world. The offer 
was joyfully accepted by the Romans, who had long wished 
for an opportunity of adding this devoted country to their 
dominion. Their army, under the command of Quin'tus 

3. Under the administration of Polysperchon what was said ? What 
is said of Phocion ? What reply did he make to a friend ? Who was 
appointed governor of Athens ? What is said of his administration ? — 
4. What was the last effort to revive the hberty of Greece ? To whom 
was the government committed ? What did he form ? Who succeeded 
Aratus? What was he styled? — 5. AVhat is said of the Macedonians? 
What was done by their army ? 



GREECE. 73 

Flami'nius, defeated Philip, king of Macedon, and proclaimed 
liberty to all the Grecian states. About thirty years after this 
event, the Romans, under the command of PauVus j^mi^lius, 
again invaded Greece, in a war with Perse'us, the son of 
Philip, who was entirely defeated in the battle of Pyd'na, 
and failing into the hands of the conqueror, with all his family, 
he was led captive to Rome, to grace the triumph of the 
general. Macedonia was thus reduced to a Roman province, 
B. c. 167. 

6. The Romans, already jealous of the power of the Achsaan 
League, endeavored to weaken it by cherishing divisions 
among the states, and sought the earliest opportunity of 
again unsheathing the sword against Greece. At length the 
Spartans, in a contest with the Achaean states, applied for 
assistance to Rome. The Romans, under the command of 
3feteVlus, marched into Greece and gained a complete victory 
over the Achaean army. The consul Mummius completed 
the conquest by taking and destroying the city of Corinth, 
in which the remainder of the Achaean forces had taken ref- 
uge. The Achaean constitution was dissolved, and all Greece 
was reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Acha'ia, 
B. c. 146. 

1. In reviewing the history of this extraordinary people, 
we find much to admire and much to condemn. In point of 
genius, taste, learning, patriotism, and valor, the Greeks sur- 
passed all the other nations of antiquity. With regard to 
their forms of government, they were far from corresponding 
in practice with what they expressed in theory. Even in 
the palmiest days of Greece, we look in vain for that beauti- 
ful idea presented by a well-regulated commonwealth. The 
condition of the people frequently partook more of servitude 
than of liberty. Slaves formed the great majority of the 
inhabitants of the Grecian states ; and bondage being a con- 
sequence of the contraction of debt, even by free men, a 
great proportion of these were subject to the tyrannical con- 
trol of their fellow-citizens. They were perpetually divided 
into factions, and torn by internal dissensions, which finally 
led to the downfall of their liberties. 

8. In pursuing the history of Athens, the mind is forcibly 

When did the Komans invade Greece ? What is said of Philip ? 
What was his fate ? — 6. What is said of the Romans ? Who completed 
the conquest of Greece? To what was it reduced? — 7. In reviewins^ 
the history what do we find ? What is said of the forms of government ? 
Of the people? Of slaves?— 8. In pursuing the history of Athens how 
is the mind struck ? 
7 



74 aEEECE. ' 

struck with the injustice and ingratitude frequently mani- 
fested towards the most illustrious of her citizens. Miltia- 
des, Aristides, Themistocles, Fhocion, Cimon, and Socrates, 
were all sentenced to death or banishment, yet the Athenians, 
with their characteristic fickleness and inconstancy, did am- 
ple justice to their merits, and sought to punish those by 
whom they were accused. The most remarkable circumstance 
which strikes us, in comparing the later with the more early 
period of Grecian history, is the total change in the genius 
and spirit of the people. The ardor of patriotism, the thirst 
for military glory and love of liberty, decline with the rising 
grandeur of the nation ; while a taste for the fine arts, a love 
of science and the refinements of luxury are introduced. 



CHAPTER IX. 

GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



PHILOSOPHY. — Philosophy among the pagan Greeks 
was divided into various sects or schools. Of these, the 
lon'ic sect was the most ancient, founded by Tha'les, b. c. 
640. He was eminently distinguished for his knowledge of 
geometry and astronomy, and taught the belief of a first 
cause and overruling Providence, but erroneously supposed 
the Deity to animate the universe, as the soul does the body. 

The Italian, or Pythago'rean, sect was founded by Fythag'- 
oras, who taught the absurd doctrine of the transmigration 
of souls through diff*erent bodies. He believed the earth to be 
a sphere, the planets to be inhabited, and fixed stars to be 
the suns and centres of other systems. 

The Socrat'ic school was founded by Soc'rates, who was 
esteemed the wisest and most virtuous of the Greeks, and 
the father of moral philosophy. He taught the belief of a 
First Cause, whose beneficence is equal to his power, the Crea- 
tor and Ruler of the universe. He inculcated the immor- 



Who were sentenced to death or banishment ? What remarkable cir- 
cumstance strikes us ? What declined? 

Chapter IX.— Philosophy. — What is said of philosophy among the 
Greeks? Who was the founder of the Ionic sect? What is said of him ? 
Who was the founder of the Pythagorean sect? What did lie teach? 
Who was the founder of the Socratic sect ? What did he teach and in- 
culcate ? 



GREECE. ; O 

tality of the soul, and a future state of rewards and punish- 
ments. 

The Cynics, a ridiculous sect founded by Antis'thenes, and 
supported by Diog^enes, condemned knowledge as useless, re- 
nounced social enjoyments and conveniences of life, and in- 
dulged themselves in scurrility and invective. 

The Academic sect was founded by Pla'to, a philosopher 
whose doctrines have had, perhaps, a more extensive influence 
over the minds of mankind than those of any other of the 
ancients. Plato had the most sublime ideas of the Deity and 
his attributes. He incorrectly taught, however, that the 
human soul was a portion of the Divinity, and that this alli- 
ance with the Eternal Mind might be improved into actual 
intercourse with the Supreme Being, by abstracting the soul 
from all the corruptions it derives from the body. He gave 
his lectures in the grove of Academus, near Athens. 

The Peripatetic sect was founded by Aristo'tle, who es- 
tablished his school in the Lyce'um, at Athens. His philoso- 
phy was taught in the schools for sixteen hundred years. 

The Skeptical sect was founded by Pijr'rho, who stupidly 
inculcated universal doubt as the only true wisdom. There 
was, in his opinion, no essential difference between vice and 
virtue, further than as human compact had discriminated 
them. Tranquillity of mind he considered to be the greatest 
happiness, and this was to be obtained by absolute indiffer- 
ence to all dogmas or opinions. 

The Sto'ic sect was founded by Ze'no. The Stoics incul- 
cated fortitude of mind, denied that pain is an evil, and en- 
deavored to raise themselves above all the passions and 
feelings of humanity. They taught that virtue consists in 
accommodating the dispositions of the mind to the immuta- 
ble laws of nature, and vice in opposing these laws. Yice, 
therefore, they regarded as folly, and virtue the only true 
wisdom. 

The Epicu'reans, named from Epicu'rus, the founder of 
the sect, maintained that the supreme happiness of man con- 
sisted in pleasure. 

The principle of all things was a subject of special re- 

Who founded the Cynic sect? What did he condemn? Who 
founded the Academic sect? What did he teach? Where did he 
give his lectures ? Who founded the Peripatetic sect ? Who founded 
the Skeptic sect ? What did he inculcate ? Who was the founder of 
the Stoic sect? What did they inculcate? What did they teach? 
What is said of the Epicureans? What was a subject of special re- 
search ? 



76 GREECE. 

search by the philosophers of Greece. Tha'les taught that 
this principle consisted of water ; Anaxag'oras, of infinite 
air ; Herac'litus, of fire ; Democ'ritus, of atoms ; Pythag'o- 
ras, of unity ; Pla'to, of God, idea, and matter ; Aristot'le, of 
matter, form, and privation ; Ze'no, of God and matter ; Epi- 
cu^rus, of matter and empty space. 

The Seven Wise Men. — The seven wise men of Greece 
were Tha'les, of Miletus ; So'lon, of Athens ; Bias, of Pri- 
ene ; Chi'lo, of Lacedaemon ; Pit'tacus, of Mitylene ; Cleo- 
hii'lus, of Lindos, and Perian'der, of Corinth. Instead of 
Periander, some enumerate My' son, and others Anachar' sis. 

The Council of the Amphio'tyons. — This Council is sup- 
posed to have been instituted by Am.phictyon, the son of 
Deucalion, king of Thessaly, at an early period of the his- 
tory of Greece. It consisted, at first, of twelve deputies, 
from the twelve difl'erent cities or states; but the number 
was afterwards increased to thirty. They met twice a year — 
in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Therm opylse. 
The objects of this assembly were to unite in strict unity the 
states which were represented ; to consult for their mutual 
welfare and defence ; to decide all differences between cities ; 
and to try offences against the laws of nations. 

Public Games. — There were four public and solemn games 
in Greece, namely, the Olym'pic, Pytli'ian, Ne'mean, and 
Isth'mian. The exercises practised at these games were 
leaping, running, throwing, boxing, and wrestling ; also the 
horse and chariot races, and contests between the poets, ora- 
tors, musicians, philosophers, and artists. 

The Olympic games were instituted by Her'cules, in honor 
of Jupiter Olympus, b. c. 1222 years; they were celebrated 
in the town of Ol3^mpia, in the first month of every fifth year, 
and lasted five days. The space between one celebration to 
another was called an Olym'jnad, by which the Greeks com- 
puted their time. The prize bestowed on the victor was a 
crown of olive ; yet trifling as was this reward, it was con- 
sidered as the highest honor, and was sought for with the 



What were the various opinions of the philosophers on this subject? 

The Seven Wise Men. — Who were the seven wise men of Greece? 

The Council of the Amphictyons. — By whom was it instituted? 
Of what did it consist? Where did they meet? What was the object 
of this assembly ? 

Public Games. — What were the four public games? What were 
the exercises ? By whom were the Olympic games instituted ? How 
often were they celebrated ? What was the prize of the victor ? What 
is said of it ? 



GREECE. 77 

utmost eagerness. The victor was greeted with loud accla- 
mations, and his return home was in the style of a warlike 
conqueror. 

The Pythian games were celebrated every fifth year, in the 
second of every Olympiad, near Delphi, in honor of Apollo. 
The reward of the victors was a crown of laurel. 

The Nemean games were celebrated in the town of Nemea 
every third year. The victors were crowned with parsley. 

The Isthmian games, so called from b'eing celebrated on 
the isthmus of Corinth, were instituted in honor of Neptune, 
and observed every third or fifth year. They were held so 
sacred that even a public calamity could not prevent their 
celebration. The victors were rewarded with a garland of 
pine leaves. 

Literature. — No nation of ancient or modern times sur- 
passed the Greeks in literary taste and genius. In subse- 
quent ages, great advances have been made in science, and in 
some of the branches of polite learning, yet in chaste and 
beautiful composition, in brilliancy of fancy, in harmony of 
periods, in various forms of intellectual efforts, under the 
name of poetry, oratory, and history, they are still unrivalled. 

Poetry in Greece was extremely ancient ; it was even cul- 
tivated before the introduction of letters. In epic poetry, 
Homer stands unrivalled. In lyric poetry, the names of 
Ana'creon, Sap'pho, and Fin'dar, have attained imperish- 
able fame. 

History did not engage the attention of the Greeks till a 
comparatively late period ; but Herod'otus, Thticyd'ides, and 
Xen'ophon will ever be numbered among the greatest mas- 
ters of narration. 

Oratory was cultivated among the Greeks, particularly the 
Athenians, with the utmost care. The study of eloquence 
formed the principal employment of the young citizens at 
Athens. It was that which opened the way to the highest 
offices, reigned absolute in the assemblies, decided the most 
important affairs of the state, and was an almost unlimited 



How often were the Pytliian games celebrated ? In honor of whom ? 
What was the reward of the victors? At what place were the Nemean 
celebrated? With what were the victors crowned? Why were the 
Isthmian games so called? What is said of them? What was the 
reward of the victors ? 

Literature. — What is said of the Greeks in literary taste? In 
what are they still unrivalled? What is said of poetry? Of Homer? 
Of Anacreon, etc.? What is said of History? W^hat is said of Ora- 
tory ? The study of Elwj^uence ? 
7* 



78 GREECE. 

power to those who had the talent of oratory in an eminent 
degree. Music was cultivated with great success, and was 
considered an essential part in the education of the youth. 
The ancients ascribed to it wonderful effects ; they believed 
it w^ell calculated to calm the passions, soften the manners, 
and even to harmonize nations naturally rude and barbarous. 
Dancing was also cultivated with considerable care and atten- 
tion. 

Arts. — In the more useful and necessary arts of life, the 
Greeks were never much distinguished. But in those which 
are termed the fine arts, Greece far surpassed all other nations 
of antiquity ; and those specimens which have survived the 
wreck of time are regarded as models for imitation, and are 
acknowledged as standards of excellence, in the judgment of 
the most polished nations of modern times. During the ad- 
ministration of Pericles, which is called the golden age of 
the Grecian arts, architecture, sculpture, and painting were 
carried to the summit of perfection. The architecture con- 
sisted of three distinct orders, the Dor'ic, the lon'ic, and 
the Corin'thian. The Doric has a masculine grandeur, and 
an air of strength superior to both the other orders. It is, 
therefore, well adapted to works of great magnitude. Of 
this order is the temple of Theseus, at Athens, built ten 
years after the battle of Marathon. It is almost entire at 
the present day. 

The Ionic is distinguished for its elegance and simplicity, 
the latter quality being essentially requisite in true beauty. 
Of this order were the temple of Apollo, at Miletus, the 
temple of the Delphic oracle, and the temple of Dia'na, at 
Eph'esus. The Corinthian assumed the highest magnifi- 
cence by uniting the characters of all the orders. 

in sculpture the Greeks excelled no less than in archi- 
tecture. Specimens of their skill in this respect are per- 
fect models. The Dying Gladiator, the Venus, and the 
Laoc'oon of the Grecian sculptors have an imperishable 
fame. 

In painting, though very few specimens have descended 
to us, they are supposed to have excelled. The productions 

Vv^iat is said of Music? What did they ascribe to it? Wliat is said 
of Dancing? 

Arts. — in what were the Greeks never greatly distinguished? In 
wliat did they surpass all others ? What were the three orders of archi- 
tecture ? What is said of the Doric ? How was the Ionic distin^xuished ? 
What did the Corinthian effect ? Vvliat is said of sculpture ? What have 
an imperishable fame ? What is said of painting ? 



GREECE. 79 

of Zeux'is, Apelle'us, Timan^thes, and others which per- 
ished, were highly extolled by the writers of antiquity. 

Private and Domestic Life. — The dress of the Greeks dif- 
fered much from that of most of the modern nations. The 
men wore an inner garment called a tunic, over which they 
threw a mantle ; their shoes or sandals were fastened under 
the soles of their feet with thongs. The women, particu- 
larly at Athens, wore a white tunic, which was closely bound 
with a broad sash, and descended in graceful folds to the 
ground ; also a shorter robe, confined round the waist with 
a ribbon, and bordered at the bottom with stripes of various 
colors. Over this they sometimes put on a robe which was 
w^orn much like the present scarf. In the earlier ages of 
Greece the inhabitants usually wore no covering on their 
heads, but in aftertimes they made use of a kind of hat, 
tied under the chin. The women, however, always had 
their heads covered. The Athenians wore in their hair a 
golden grasshopper, as an emblem of the antiquity of their 
nation, intimating that they sprung from the earth. In 
Sparta the kings, magistrates, and citizens were but little 
distinguished by dress. The military costume was of a red 
color. 

The meals of the Greeks were usually four in number. 
The breakfast was taken about the rising of the sun ; the 
next meal at midday ; then came the afternoon repast ; and, 
lastly, the supper, which was the principal meal. Every- 
thing capable of sustaining life was used as food, though 
they were generally fond of jQsh. Water and wine were the 
usual drink. At first they sat upright at their meals ; but, 
as luxury prevailed, couches were introduced, on which the 
guests reclined while at table. Marriage among the Greeks 
was only lawful when the consent of the parents or other 
relatives could be obtained. Polygamy was allowed only 
after great calamities, such as war or pestilence. 

The Grecian women seldom appeared in strange company, 
but were confined to the remote parts of the house, into 
which no male visitor was admitted. When they went 
abroad, they wore veils to conceal their faces. It was dis- 
reputable, however, for them to appear much abroad. Chil- 

Private and Domestic Life. — What was the dress of the men? 
Of the women? What did tlie Athenians wear? What was the 
number of their meals, and when were they taken ? What was used ? 
How did they sit at their meals? What is said of marriage? What 
was allowed ? What is said of the Grecian women ? What was dis- 
reputable ? 



80 GREECE. 

dren were required to maintain their parents in old age ; but, 
according to the laws of Solon, parents vfho did not bring 
up their children to some useful employment could not ex- 
act a support from them. 

The funerals of the Greeks were attended with many cere- 
monies, showing that they considered the duties belonging 
to the dead to be of the highest importance. In their view, 
it was the most awful of all imprecations to wish that a 
person might be deprived of funeral honors.* 

Of some of the peculiar institutions of Greece, the court 
of the Areop'agus and Ostracism were most remarkable. 
The Areopagus, which signifies the Hill of Mars, from the 
place where it was held, was the most distinguished and 
venerable court of justice in ancient times, and took cog- 
nizance of crimes, abuses, and innovations, either in religion 
or government. The Areopagites were the guardians of 
education and manners, and inspected the laws. To laugh 
in this assembly was an unpardonable act of levity. 

One of the absurd peculiarities in - the government of 
Athens was the practice of Ostracism. This was a ballot 
of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the name of 
the individual most offensive to him; and he who was 
marked out by the greatest number of votes was banished 
from his country for a specified time, often for a number of 
years. It was not necessary that any crime should be al- 
leged. Neither the property nor the honor of the exile sus- 
tained the least injury. By this institution the most flagrant 
injustice was often committed against the most virtuous 
citizens. 

Origin of Tragedy. — Tragedy owes its origin to the feasts 
of Bac'chiis, usually celebrated at the time of the vintage, 
and at first consisted of a few rude comic scenes, intermixed 
with songs in praise of that god. Thes'pis, owing to sev- 
eral improvements which he made in tragedy, is generally 
esteemed its inventor, although there were several tragic 

* For the Oracles and Eeligion of the Greeks, see the chapter on 
Mythology. 

What were children required to do? What is said of funerals? 
What was thought the most awful imprecation ? What were some of 
the peculiar institutions ? What is said of the Areopagus ? Of what 
were thev the guardians ? What was deemed an unpardonable act of 
levity ? 'What was the Ostracism? By this institution, what was often 
committed ? 

Origin of Tragedy. — To what does tragedy owe its origin? What 
is said of Thespis ? 



i 



GREECE. 81 

and comic poets before his time. He carried the actors 
about in carts, whereas before they were accustomed to sing 
or recite in the streets, wherever chance led them ; he also 
caused their faces to be smeared over with lees of wine, in- 
stead of acting- without disguise, as at first ; and he intro- 
duced a character among the chorus, who, to give the actors 
time to rest, repeated the adventures of some illustrious 
person. The alterations which Thespis made in tragedy 
gave room for jEs'chylus to make still further improve- 
ments. He was a man of superior genius, and took upon 
himself to reform rather than to create tragedy anew. He 
gave masks to his actors, adorned them with robes and 
trains, and made them wear buskins. Instead of a cart, he 
erected a stage of a moderate elevation, and entirely changed 
their style, which, from being merely burlesque, became 
serious and majestic. But ihe most important and essential 
addition of ^schijlus consisted in the vivacity and spirit of 
the action, sustained by the dialogue of the persons of the 
drama, introduced by him — in the artful working up the 
stronger passions, especially of terror and pity, which, by 
alternately afflicting and agitating the soul with mournful 
and terrible objects, produces a grateful pleasure and delight 
from that very trouble and emotion ; and, lastly, in the 
choice of his subjects, which were always great, noble, in- 
teresting, and contained within due bounds by the unity of 
time, place, and action. ,0f the ninety tragedies composed 
by ^schylus, about seven are now in existence. 

iEschylus was in sole possession of the glory of the stage, 
when a young rival made his appearance in the person of 
Soph'ocles, to dispute with him the palm. Twenty times he 
obtained the prize of poetry over his competitors. Of one 
hundred and twenty tragedies which he composed, only seven 
are now extant, but these prove him to have carried the drama 
almost to perfection. 

Eurip'ides was the cotemporary and the great rival of 
Sophocles. But nineteen of his seventy-five tragedies re- 
main.* 

* For a fuller account of ancient Greece, see Dr. William Smith's 
History of Greece. 

How did Thespis carry his actors ? What improvement did ^schylus 
make ? Of his tragedies, how many remain ? Who disputed the palm 
with him ? What is said of Euripides ? 

F 



BOOK lY. 
HOME. 

CHAPTER I. 

FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE CITY TO THE EXPUL- 
SI ON OF TARQUIN, THE LAST KING OF ANCIENT ROME. 
—B. C. 752 TO 509. 

THE early history of this celebrated empire, like that of 
the other nations of antiquity, is greatly involved in 
obscurity. But the history of Rome is properly the his- 
tory of a City, which gradually extended its imperial sway, 
first over all Italy, then over all the countries bordering on 
the Mediterranean Sea. According to the account of the 
poets, ^'?ieas, a Trojan prince, having escaped from the de- 
struction of his native place, after a variety of adventures, 
landed on the shores of Italy, where he was kindly received 
by Lati'nus, king of the Latins, who gave him his daughter 
Lavin'ia in marriage, and made him heir to his throne. The 
succession continued in the family of ^neas for about four 
hundred years, until the reign of Nu'mitor, who was the 
fifteenth king in a direct line from the Trojan hero. 

2. Rhe'a Syl'via, the daughter of Niimitor, was the mother 
of twin brothers, named Roin'uliis and Be'mns. The mother, 
who had been a vestal virgin, was condemned to be buried 
alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had suffered a 
violation of their chastity, and the twins were ordered to 
be thrown into the Tiber. But as the water into which they 
were cast was too shallow to drown them, they were discov- 
ered and rescued from their perilous situation l3y Faus'tulus, 
the king's herdsman, who brought them up as his own chil- 
dren. After a variety of adventures Romulus and Remus, 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the early history ? What account do 
the poets give of Jilneas ? — 2. What is said of Khea Sylvia ? To what 
was the mother condemned ? What is said of the twins ? By whom 
were they found ? What is related of Romulus and Remus ? 

82 



ROME. 83 

we are told, were instrumental in restoring Numitor, their 
grandfather, to his throne, from which he had been expelled 
by the usurpation of his brother, Aumulius. 

3. Subsequent to this event the two brothers resolved 
to build a city on the hills where they had passed their 
youth, and formerly tended their flocks ; but a contest arose 
between them relative to the sovereignty, which proved fatal 
to Remus. It is related that he was killed by his brother, 
who struck him dead on the spot, for contemptuously leaping 
over the city wall. 

Romulus being thus left the sole commander, persevered 
in the building of the city, which, from his own name, he 
called Rome. It was founded b. c. 152. Having been 
chosen the first King, Romulus made it the asylum for 
fugitives, and by this means the number of inhabitants rap- 
idly increased. 

4. The newly elected monarch is said to have divided the 
people into three Tribes, each consisting of ten Cu'i'iae ; and 
also into two orders of Patri'cians and Plebe'ians. The Sen- 
ate consisted of one hundred of the principal citizens ; it was 
afterwards increased to two hundred members. Besides a 
guard of three hundred men to attend his person, the king was 
always preceded by twelve Lictors, armed with axes bound up 
in a bundle of rods. The duty of the lictors was to execute the 
laws. These wise regulations contributed daily to increase 
the strength of the new city ; multitudes flocked to it from 
the adjacent towns, and women only were wanted to confirm 
its growing prosperity. Romulus, in order to supply this 
deficiency, invited the Sahi'nes, a neighboring nation, to a 
festival in honor of Neptune ; and while the strangers were 
intent upon the spectacle, a number of the Roman youth 
rushed in among them, and seized the youngest and most 
beautiful of the women, and carried them off by violence. 

5. A sanguinary war followed, which had brought the 
city almost to the brink of ruin, when an accommodation 
was happily effected through the interposition of the Sabine 
women who had been carried off by the Romans. Romulus 
reigned thirty-seven years, and after his death received divine 
honors, under the name of Quiri'nus. 

3. What did they resolve to do? What arose? What is related? 
What did Eomulus now do ? — 4. How did he divide the people ? Of 
what did the senate consist? By what was the king attended? To 
what did these regulations contribute ? What were wanted ? How was 
this deficiency supplied ? — 5. What followed ? How long did Eomulus 
reign ? 



84 HOME. 

6. On the death of Romulus, Nu'ma PompiKius, a native 
of Cures, a Sabine city, was elected the second King of Rome. 
He softened the fierce and warlike disposition of the Romans, 
by cultivating the arts of peace and inculcating obedience 
to the laws and respect for religion. He built the Temple of 
Ja'nus, which was to be open during war, and shut in time 
of peace. He died at the age of eighty, after a reign of forty- 
three years. 

t. TitVlus Hosti'lius was the third King of Rome. His 
reign is memorable for the combat between the Hora'tii and 
Curia'tii, which is said to have taken place during a war 
against the Albans. There were, at the time, in each army, 
three brothers of one birth ; those of the Romans called the 
Horatii, and those of the Albans, the Curiatii, all six remark- 
able for their strength, activity, and courage. To these it 
was resolved to commit the fate of the two parties. Finally, 
the champions met in combat. The contest was for some 
time obstinate and doubtful ; but victory at length declared 
in favor of Rome. The three Curiatii were slain, and only one 
of the Horatii survived. By this victory the Romans became 
masters of Alba. Hostilius died after a reign of thirty-two 
years. 

8. After the death of the late monarch. Aniens Mar'cius, 
the grandson of Niima was elected the fourth King of Rome. 
He conquered the Latins, and suppressed the insurrections 
of the Yien'tes, Fidina'tes, and YoFsci. But his victories 
over his enemies were far less important than his exertions 
in fortifying and embellishing the city ; he erected a prison 
for malefactors, and built the port of Ostia, at the mouth of 
the Timber. Ancus died in the twenty-fourth year of his reign. 

9. Tarqui'nius Pris'cus, or Tar'quin the elder, the son of 
a merchant of Corinth, next succeeded to the throne. His 
reign is chiefly distinguished for his triumph over the Sabines 
and Latins, and by the embellishment of the city with works 
of utility and magnificence. He built the walls of hewn 
stone, erected the circus, founded the capitol, and constructed 
the sewers or aqueducts for the purpose of draining the city 
of its rubbish and superfluous waters. Tarquin was assassi- 

6. Who succeeded? What did he do? What was his age? How 
long did he reign ? — 7. Y/ho was the third king of Eome ? For what 
is his reign memorable ? Relate the circumstances of this combat ? — 
8. Who Avas the fourth king of Rome ? Whom did he conquer? What 
did he erect ? When did he die ?— 9. Wlio next succeeded to the throne ? 
For what was his reign distinguished ? What did he build ? How did 
he die ? 



ROME. 85 

. nated in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and in the thirty-eighth 
of his reign. 

10. Ser'vius TuVlius, who was the son of a female slave, 
and son-in-law of the late monarch, secured his election to 
the throne through the intrigues of Tanaquil, his mother-in- 
law. In order to determine the increase or diminution of 
his subjects, he instituted the census, by which, at the end of 
every fifth year, the number of the citizens, their dwellings, and 
the amount of their property were ascertained. The census 
was closed by an expiatory sacrifice, called a lustrum ; hence 
the period of five years was usually called a lustrum. 

11. Servius, in the early part of his reign, had married his 
two daughters to the two sons of Tarquin, the late King, 
whose names were Tarquin and Aruns. But as their dis- 
positions corresponded with those of his daughters, he took 
care to give Tullia, the younger, who was of a violent dis- 
position, to Aruns, who was mild, and the elder to Tarquin, 
who was haughty and ambitious, hoping thereby that they 
w^ould correct each other's defects. Tarquin and Tullia, 
however, murdered their consorts, and were shortly after- 
w^ards married ; and as one crime often produces another, 
they caused the assassination of Servius, after which Tarquin 
usurped the throne. Tullia, in her eagerness to salute her 
husband as King, is said to have driven her chariot over the 
dead body of her father, which lay exposed in the street that 
led to the senate. Thus died Servius TulHus, after a useful 
and prosperous reign of forty-four years. 

12. Tarquin, surnamed the Proud, having placed himself 
upon the throne, as we have seen, soon disgusted the people 
by his tyranny and cruelty. He refused the late King's 
body a burial, under the pretence of his having been a usurper, 
and, conscious of being hated by all virtuous persons, he 
ordered all those whom he suspected to have been attached 
to Servius to be put to death. 

To divert the attention of the people from his illegal 
method of obtaining the crown, he kept them constantly em- 
ployed either in wars or in erecting public buildings. While 
besieging Ardea, a small town not far from Rome, Sextus, 
his son, left the camp to visit the house of Collati'nus, under 
the mask of friendship. He was kindly received by the vir- 

10. Who succeeded to the throne? What did he institute? — 11. What 
is related of his two daujyhters ? How did Servius die ? Who succeeded 
to the throne? What did Tullia do in her eagerness to salute her hus- 
band as king?— 12. What did Tarquin refuse? What did he order? 
What is related of Sextus ? 



86 ROME. 

tuous Lucre'tia, the wife of Collati'nus, who did not in the 
least suspect his crimioal design. 

13. At midnight, however, the princely ruffian entered her 
chamber with a drawn sword in his hand, and threatened 
her with instant death if she offered to resist. Lucretia, 
though seeing death so near, was yet inexorable, until being 
told if she did not yield he would first kill her, and then lay- 
ing his own slave dead by her side would report that he 
found and killed them both in a criminal act. 

Thus the terror of infamy achieved what death itself could 
not obtain. In the meantime Lucretia, resolving not to 
pardon herself even for the crime of another, sent for her 
husband, CoUatinus, and Spu'rius, her father, who brought 
with them Junius Brutus, the reported idiot, whom they ac- 
cidentally met in the way. They found her overwhelmed 
with grief, and endeavored in vain to console her. "No, 
never," she replied ; ''never shall I find anything in this 
world worth living for, after having lost my honor ;" and 
drawing a poignard from beneath her robe she plunged it 
into her own bosom, and expired without a groan. 

14. The body of Lucretia was brought out and exposed to 
view in the public forum, where Brutus, who had hitherto 
acted as an idiot in order to elude the cruelty of Tarquin, 
inflamed the ardor of the citizens by displaying the horrid 
transaction. He obtained a decree of the senate that Tar- 
quin and his family should be forever banished from Rome ; 
at the same time making it a capital offence for any one to 
plead for his return. That monarch was accordingly ex- 
pelled from his kingdom, in the twenty-fifth year of his reign, 
and the regal government was abolished, after it had lasted 
for two hundred and forty-four years. 

13. At midnight what did he do? What did he threaten? How did 
CoUatinus and Spurius find Lucretia ? What reply did she make them ? 
How did she die?— 14. What did Brutus do? What did he obtain? 
How long had the regal government continued ? 



ROME. 87 



CHAPTER II. 

ROMEAS A REPUBLIC. 

FROM THE ABOLITION OF THE REGAL POWER TO THE 
FIRST PUNIC WAR.—B. C. 509 TO 449. 

THE regal authority having been abolished, a republican 
form of government was established on its ruins. The 
supreme power was still reserved to the Senate and peo- 
ple, but instead of a King, two magistrates, called Consuls, 
were annually chosen, with all authority, privileges, and en- 
signs of royalty. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and 
Collatimis, the husband of Lucretia, were chosen the first 
Consuls of Kome. 

2. But scarcely had the new republic began to exist when 
a conspiracy was formed for its destruction. Some young 
men of the principal families of the state, who had been edu- 
cated near the King, and had shared in all the luxuries and 
pleasures of the court, formed a party in Rome in favor of 
Tarquin, and undertook to reestablish the monarchy. Their 
design was fortunately discovered before it could be carried 
into execution ; and, surprising as it may appear, the two 
sons of Brutus were found among the number of the conspira- 
tors. Few situations could be more affecting than that of 
Brutus, — a father and a judge. He was impelled by justice 
to condemn ; by nature to spare the children he loved. 

Being brought to trial before him, they were condemned 
to be beheaded in his presence, while the father beheld the 
sad spectacle with unaltered countenance. He ceased to be 
a father, as it has been beautifully observed, that he might 
execute the duties of the consul, and chose to live bereft of 
his children rather than to neglect the public punishment of 
crime. 

3. The insurrection in the city being thus suppressed, Tar- 
quin now resolved to regain his former throne by foreign as- 
sistance, and, having prevailed upon the Vientes to aid him, 
advanced towards Rome at the head of a considerable army ; 
but he was defeated by the Romans, under the command of 

Chapter II. — 1. The regal power being abohshed, what was estab- 
lished ? What two magistrates were chosen ? Who were the first two 
consuls ? — 2. What is said of the republic ? Who were found among the 
conspirators ? What was their fate ? What is said of Brutus ? — 3. What 
did Tarquin now resolve ? By whom was he defeated ? 



88 ROME. 

the two Consuls, Brutus . and Yale'rius. The latter had 
been elected in the place of Collatinus. But while the Ro- 
mans rejoiced in the victory they obtained, they had to la- 
ment the death of Brutus, who fell in the engagement, and 
the Roman matrons honored his memory by wearing mourn- 
ing for a whole year. Valerius returned to the city, and 
was the first Roman who enjoyed the honor of a triumph. 

4. In the meantime, Tarquin, undaunted by his misfor- 
tunes, prevailed upon Porsen'na, one of the kings of Etru'ria, 
to espouse his cause, and in conjunction with him marched 
directly to Rome, and laid siege to the city. This war is 
signalized by the daring intrepidity of Hora^tius Coc'les, 
who alone resisted the whole force of the enemy at the head 
of a bridge which led across the Tiber, and also by that of 
Mutiiis Scaev^olo, who entered the enemy's camp with a de- 
sign to assassinate Porsenna, but, mistaking the monarch, 
killed the secretary, who sat by his side. On Porsenna's 
demanding who he was, Mutius, without reserve, informed 
him of his country and his design, and by way of punish- 
ment of the hand which had missed its aim, he thrust it into 
the fire which was burning upon the altar before him. For- 
senna, admiring this noble intrepidity, offered conditions of 
his peace to the Romans on honorable terms. 

5. Tarquin having induced the Latins to enlist in his 
cause, for a third time approached the city with his army. 
But while a public enemy threatened them from without, 
domestic disorders prevailed within the walls of the city. 
The plebeians, who were poor and oppressed with debt, re- 
fused to aid in repelling the enemy unless their debts were 
remitted on their return, and as the Valerian law gave to 
any condemned citizen the right of appealing to the people, 
the consuls found their authority of no avail. 

6. In this state of things an extraordinary measure was 
necessary. A new magistrate was created, styled Dictator, 
who should continue in office only as long as the danger of the 
state required, and whose power was absolute, not only over 
all ranks of the state, but even over the very laws, with 
which he could dispense in cases of public exigency, without 
consulting the senate or the people. Titus Largius, one of 
the Consuls, being" elevated to the office of Dictator, collected 

What had the Eomans to lament ? — 4. In the meantime what did Tar- 
quin do ? By what is this war signalized ? What is related of Horatius 
and Mutius? — 5, What is said of "Tarquin? What did the plebeians re- 
fuse ?— 6. What new magistrate waa created ? What was his power ? 
Who was the first dictator ? 



ROME. 89 

an army, and having restored tranquillity to the state, re- 
signed the dictatorship before the expiration of six months, 
with the reputation of having exercised it with justice and 
moderation. 

Shortly -after this event, war again was excited by the 
Tarquins ; in this emergency, Posthu'mius was appointed 
dictator; the Romans were completely victorious, and the 
sons of Tarquin were slain. 

T. On the return of peace, Rome was again disturbed by 
domestic dissensions ; the dispute between the creditors and 
debtors was again renewed. The plebeians, despairing of 
being able to affect a redress of their grievances in Rome, 
resolved to move and form a new establishment without its 
limits. Accordingly, under the conduct of a plebeian, called 
Sicin'ius Bellu'tus, they retired to a mountain called Mons 
Sacer, on the banks of the river Anio, about three miles 
from Rome. 

8. At the news of this defection the Senate grew alarmed, 
and immediately deputed ten of the most respectable of their 
body, with authority to grant a redress. Men'enius Agrip'- 
pa, one of the ten commissioners, eminent for his virtue and 
wisdom, is said to have effected a reconciliati-on by relating 
the celebrated fable of the disagreement between the stomach 
and the other members of the human body. The applica- 
tion of the fable was so obvious, that the people unanimously 
cried out that Agrippa should lead them back to Rome. 
Before their departure, however, it was proposed by Lucius 
Junius that for their future security a new order of magis- 
trates should be created, who should have the power of an- 
nulling, by a single vote, any measure which they should 
deem prejudicial to the interests of the people. Those magis- 
trates, called Tribunes, were annually elected ; their number, 
which at first was five, afterwards increased to ten. By this 
measure the aristocracy was restrained and the fury of the 
populace checked. At the same time two magistrates, styled 
JEdiles, were appointed, whose duty it was to assist the tri- 
bunes and take charge of the public buildings. 

9. During the late separation, agriculture having been 
neglected, a famine was the consequence the following season ; 

What was the fate of the sons of Tarquin? — 7. What dispute was 
accain renewed ? What did the plebeians resolve to do ? — 8. At the nev/s 
of this defection what did the senate do ? What is related of Agrippa? 
For their future security what was done ? W^hat were tliese magistrates 
called ? At the same time what other two magistrates were appointed ? 
— 9. During the separation vrhat was neglected? What follovred? 



90 ROME. 

but the timelj arrival of a large quantity of corn from Sicily- 
prevented the evil consequences that were likely to ensue. 
At this time the resentment of the people was strongly ex- 
cited against CorioWnus, who insisted that the corn should 
not be distributed until the grievances of the Senate yvgvq 
removed ; for which proposition he was summoned by the 
Tribunes to a trial before the people, and was condemned to 
perpetual banishment. He retired to the Volsci, and being 
appointed to the command of their army, he invaded the 
Roman territories and carried his devastations to the very 
walls of the city ; but he was at length prevailed upon, by 
the earnest entreaties of his mother and his wife, to with- 
draw his forces. 

10. The proposal of the Agra'rian law, which had for its 
object the division of the land obtained by conquest equally 
among the people, proved a source of discord between the 
plebeians and patricians ; for, w^hile the former repeatedly 
urged the measure, the latter as often strenuously opposed 
the design. The state was, in consequence, thrown into vio- 
lent dissensions. Through the influence of the tribune, 
VoVero, a law was passed that the election of the tribunes 
should be made in the comitia, or public meetings of the 
people. By this law the supreme authority was taken from 
the patricians and placed in the hands of the plebeians, and 
the Roman government became a democracy. 

11. During the dissensions which grew out of the proposi- 
tion for the Agrarian law, Quinc'tius Cincinna'tus, a man 
eminent for his wisdom and virtue, and who had retired from 
pubhc life, was created Dictator ; but scarcely had he restored 
tranquillity to the state and resigned his office, than new 
dangers obliged him a second time to resume it. The ^qui, 
having invaded the territory of the Romans, enclosed the 
army of the Consul Minutius, who had been sent to oppose 
them, in a defile between two mountains, from which there 
was no egress. Cincinna'tus, having raised another army, 
placed himself at its head, and having defeated the ^qui, 
and rescued the army of the Consul from their perilous situa- 
tion, returned in triumph to the city, and, after holding the 
high office of Dictator only for the space of fourteen days, he 
resigned its honors and again retired to labor on his farm. 

Against whom was the resentment of the people excited? To what 
was he sentenced ? Where did he retire ? \Vhat is related of him ? — 
10. What Avas a source of discord between tlie plebeians and patricians? 
What law was passed? What was the nature of this law?— 11. Who 
at this time was created dictator ? What is said of Cinciimatus ? 



ROME. 91 

12. Previous to this period the Romans had not possessed 
any written body of laws. Under the regal government 
the monarch administered justice, and the Consuls who suc- 
ceeded them exercised the same authority. But their arbi- 
trary decisions were frequently the subject of complaint, and 
all ranks of the citizens became desirous of having a fixed 
code of laws for the security of their rights. Three com- 
missioners were accordingly sent to collect, from the most 
civilized states of Greece and Italy, such laws as were deemed 
useful in forming a suitable code. 

13. On the return of the commissioners, ten of the princi- 
pal senators, called Decemvirs, were appointed to digest a 
body of laws, and were invested with absolute power for one 
year. This gave rise to those celebrated statutes, distin- 
guished by the name of the Laias of the Twelve Tables, whioh. 
formed the basis of the Roman jurisprudence, and continued 
to be held in the greatest esteem during the most flourish- 
ing period of the republic. Those laws manifest the stern 
spirit of the people, and were marked by their severity. 
Nine crimes were punishable with death, one of which was 
parricide ; but, to the honor of the Romans, it may be ob- 
served that this crime was unknown among them for more 
than five hundred years after the foundation of the city. 

14. The Decemvirs, during the first year of their power, 
governed with equity and moderation, each in his turn pre- 
sided for a day, and exercised the sovereign authority. At 
the expiration of the term for which they were appointed, 
under a pretence that some laws were yet wanting to com- 
plete the code, they entreated the Senate to allow them 
further time, for, having experienced the charms of power, 
they were unwilling to retire. Soon they threw off the mask 
of moderation, and, regardless of the approbation either of 
the Senate or the people, resolved to continue in decemvirate. 
A conduct so notorious produced general discontent, and 
their flagrant abuse of power brought a speedy termination 
of their office. 

15. While the army was encamped about ten miles from 
Rome, during a war with the Sabines and Volsci, Ap'pius, 
one of the leading members of the decemvirate, who re- 

12. What had the Romans never possessed? For what were the com- 
missioners sent to Greece? — 13. On their return what was done? To 
what did this give rise ? What do these laws manifest ? How many 
crimes were punishable with death ? — 1 4, What is said of the decem- 
virs? What did they entreat? What did they throw off?— 15. What 
is related of Appius ? 



92 ROME. 

mained in the city, appointed Sicin'ius Denta'tus, a Tribune, 
who, on account of his extraordinary valor and exploits, was 
called the Roman Achilles, legate, and put him at the head 
of the supplies which were sent to reinforce the army in the 
field. On his arrival in the camp he was appointed at the 
head of a hundred men, to discover a more commodious place 
for encampment, as he had very candidly assured the com- 
manders that their present situation was badly chosen. The 
soldiers, however, who composed his escort, were assassins, 
and had engaged to murder him. With this view they led 
him into the hollow of a mountain, where they intended to 
put into execution their design. Dentatiis now perceived, 
when too late, the treachery of the Decemvirs, but resolving 
to sell his life as dearly a? possible, he put his back against 
a rock, and defended himself with so much bravery that he 
killed no less than fifteen, and wounded thirty of his assail- 
ants before they were able to accomplish their design. 

16. Another transaction, equally atrocious, inspired the 
citizens with a resolution to break all measures of obedience. 
While Ap'jjius, who remained in the city, was seated on his 
tribunal dispensing justice, he saw a young lady of exquisite 
beauty, named Virginia, passing to one of the public schools, 
attended by her governess. Her charms, heightened by that 
modest glow which innocence and virtue lend to nature, in- 
flamed his wicked heart ; but being himself unable to gratify 
his desires, he employed a profligate dependent to claim her 
as his own, on the pretence of her being the daughter of one 
of his female slaves. The claim being referred to his tribu- 
nal, Appius pronounced an infamous sentence, by which the 
innocent victim was torn from the embraces of her parents 
and placed within the reach of his own power. 

17. In the mean time Virginius, the young lady's father, 
did all that a parent could to save the liberty and honor of 
his daughter, but, finding that all was over, asked permission 
to take his last farewell of one whom he had so long con- 
sidered as his child. With this Appius complied, on condi- 
tion that their endearments should pass in his presence. 
Virginius, with the most poignant anguish, took his almost 
expiring daughter in his arms, for a while supported her 
head upon his breast, and wiped away the tears that rolled 

What were the soldiers who formed the escort of Dentatus ? How 
many did he kill and wound? — 16. What other transaction is related 
of Appius while seated on his tribunal ? What sentence did he pro- 
nounce ? — 17. In the mean time, what did Virginius do ? What did he 
ask? 



ROME. 98 

down her lovely face, then seizing a knife that lay on one of 
the shambles in the forum, he addressed his daughter, say- 
ing : '* My dearest child — this, this only can preserve your 
freedom and your honor " Thus saying, he buried the 
weapon in her breast, then holding it up, reeking from her 
wound, he exclaimed, " By this blood, Appius, I devote thy 
head to the infernal gods." He then ran through the city 
wildly calling on the people to strike for their freedom, and 
thence to the camp to spread the flame of liberty throughout 
the army. Ap'pius and Op'pius died by their own hands in 
prison ; their colleagues were driven into exile, and the De- 
cemvirate was abolished, after it had continued for three 
years. The Consuls were again restored. 

18; Unfortunately for Rome, there always appeared some 
cause left for internal dissensions. By an early law of the 
state, plebeians were prohibited to intermarry with the patri- 
cians, and the office of Consul was limited to the latter. 
After a long contest, the law prohibiting intermarriage was 
repealed. This concession, it was hoped, would satisfy the 
people, but it only stimulated them to urge their claim to be 
admitted to have a share in the consulship ; and on the oc- 
currence of war, they refused to enroll their names unless 
their demand was granted. At length it was agreed on both 
sides that, instead of the Consuls, six military tribunes 
should be chosen, three from the patricians and three from 
the plebeians. But this institution was soon cast aside, and 
the Consuls were again restored. 

19. The Consuls being thus restored, in order to lighten 
the weight of their duties two new magistrates were created, 
styled Censors, to be chosen ever}^ fifth year. Their duty 
was to estimate the number and the estates of the people, to 
distribute them into their proper classes, to inspect the morals 
and manners of their fellow-citizens. The office was one of 
great dignity and importance, and was exercised for nearly 
one hundred years by the patricians, afterwards by men of 
consular dignity, and finally by the Emperors. 

20. The Senate, in order to avoid the evils which fre- 
quently arose from the people's refusing to enlist in the 
army, adopted the wise expedient of giving a regular pay to 

How did he address his daughter? What did he then do? What 
was the fate of Appius and Oppius? 18. By a law of the state, what 
were the plebeians prohibited ? What was done after a long contest ? 
At length, what was agreed on both sides? — 19. What two new magis- 
trates were now created ? What was their duty ? — 20. What wise ex- 
pedient did the Senate adopt ? 



94 ROME. 

the troops. From this period, the Roman system of war 
assumed a new aspect. The Senate had the army under its 
immediate control ; the enterprises of the republic were more 
extensive, and its success more signal and important. As the 
art of war now became a profession, iu stead of an occasional 
employment, it was in consequence greatly improved, and 
from this period the Roman territory began rapidly to extend. 

21. The inhabitants of the city of Veii had repeatedly 
committed depredations on the Roman territories. It was 
at length decreed by the Roman Senate that Yeii should be 
destroyed, whatever it might cost. Accordingly, a siege was 
commenced, which continued with varied success for ten 
years. At length, in order to give greater vigor to the oper- 
ations, Camil'lus was created Dictator, and to him was en- 
trusted the sole management of the long protracted war. He 
caused a passage to be opened under ground, which led into 
the very citadel, and giving his men directions how to enter 
the breach, the city was taken and destroyed. Camillus was 
honored with a splendid triumph, in which his chariot was 
drawn by four white horses ; but being afterwards accused 
of having appropriated a part of the plunder of Yeii to his 
own U3e,"indignant at the ingratitude of his countrymen, he 
went into voluntary banishment. 

22. It was not long before the Romans had cause to re- 
pent of their injustice towards the only man who was able 
to save their country from ruin. 

The Gauls, a barbarous and warlike people, having crossed 
the Alps into the northern part of Italy, under Bren'nus, 
their king, laid siege to Clusium, a city of Etruria. The 
inhabitants of Clusium having applied for assistance to tlie 
Romans, the senate sent three patricians of the Fabian family 
on an embassy to Brennus, to inquire into the cause of 
offence given by the citizens of Clusium. To this he sternly 
replied, that " the right of valiant men lay in their swords ; 
that the Romans themselves had no other right to the cities 
they had conquered." The ambassadors, on entering the 
city, assisted the inhabitants against the assailants. This 
conduct so incensed Brennus that he immediately raised the 
siege of Clusium, and marched directly for Rome, and in a 

What were the consequences of this measure ? — 21. What was at length 
decreed ? Who was created dictator ? What did he cause ? How was he 
honored? Of what was he accused?— 22. What is said of the Gauls? 
What reply did Brennus make to the embassy sent by the Romans ? 
What did one of the ambassadors do ? How did Brennus resent this 
conduct ? 



ROME. 95 

great battle on the banks of the Allia he defeated the Roman 
army with great slaughter. 

23. After this victory the Gauls entered Rome, put to the 
sword all the inhabitants that fell in their way, pillaged the 
city, and then burnt it to ashes. They next laid siege to 
the capitol, which the Romans defended with the utmost 
bravery. At length, having discovered a way which led to 
the top of the Tarpeian Rock, a body of Gauls undertook 
the difficult task of gaining the summit under the cover of 
the night, and even succeeded in accomplishing their design, 
while the Roman sentinel was asleep. At this moment the 
gabbling of some sacred geese in the temple of Juno roused 
the garrison, and, through the exertions of Mariiis Man- 
lius, the Gauls were instantly thrown headlong down the 
precipice. 

24. As the Gauls now gave up all hope of being able to 
reduce the capitol, they agreed to quit the city on condition 
that the Romans would pay them one thousand pounds' 
weight of gold ; but, after the gold was brought forth, the 
Gauls endeavored, by fraudulent weights, to impose upon 
the Romans; and when the latter offered to complain, Bren- 
nus, casting his sword and belt into the scale, replied, that it 
was the only portion of the vanquished to suffer. At this 
moment Camillus, who in the meantime had been restored 
to favor and again appointed Dictator, entered the gates of 
the city at the head of a large army. Having been informed 
of the insolence of the enemy, he ordered the gold to be car- 
ried back to the capitol, saying that it had been the manner 
of the Romans to ransom their country by steel, and not by 
gold. A battle followed, in which the Gauls were entirely 
routed, and the Roman territories delivered from those for- 
midable invaders. 

25. After the defeat of the Gauls, through the exertions 
of Camillus, who was honored as the father of his country 
and the second founder of Rome, the city soon began again 
to rise from its ashes. Shortly after this, Manliiis, whose 
patriotism and valor had shone so conspicuous in defending 
the capitol and saving the last remains of Rome, abandoned 
himself to ambitious views ; and, being accused of aspiring 

23. On entering Eome, what did the Gauls do? Having discovered 
a way to the Tarpeian Rock, what did the Gauls do ? How was the 
garrison roused ? — 24. To what did the Gauls agree ? At this moment 
who appeared at the gates of the city? What did he order? What 
ensued? — 25. After the defeat of the Gauls, what took place? What 
is related of ]\Ianlius ? 



96 ROME. 

to the sovereign power, he was sentenced to he thrown head- 
long from the Tarpeian Rock. Thus the place which had 
been the theatre of his glory became that of his punishment 
and infamy. 

.2(3. The Romans next turned their arms against the Sam- 
nites, who inhabited an extensive tract of country in the 
south of Italy. During this contest, which lasted for about 
fifty years, the Romans were generally successful, with the 
exception of a defeat sustained near Gaudium, when their 
whole army was compelled to pass under the yoke, formed 
by two spears placed upright and a third placed across them. 
But, roused by this defeat rather than discouraged, the Ro- 
mans, the following year having created Papir'ius Cur'sor, 
Dictator, gained a signal victory over the Samnites, and com- 
pelled them in turn to undergo the same disgrace : and, pur- 
suing their good fortune under Fabius Maximus and Decius, 
they finally brought them under subjection. 

27. A war shortly afterwards followed between the Ro- 
mans and Latins ; but as their clothing, arms, and language 
were similar, the most exact discipline was necessary in 
order to prevent confusion in the engagement. Orders were 
therefore issued by Manilas, the Consul, that no soldier 
should leave his ranks under the penalty of death. When 
the armies were drawn out in order of battle. Melius, a 
Latin, challenged to single combat any one of the Roman 
knights. Upon this Titus Manlius, the son of the Consul, 
forgetful of the orders of his father, accepted the challenge, 
and slew his adversary. Then taking the spoils of the 
enemy, he hastened to lay them at the feet of the Consul, 
who, with tears in his eyes, told him that as he had violated 
military discipline, he had reduced him to the deplorable 
extremity of sacrificing his son or his country, but added, 
tha.t a thousand lives would be well lost in such a cause ; 
and accordingly ordered him to be beheaded. In the mean- 
time the battle followed, in which the Latins were van- 
quished and submitted to the Romans. 

28. The Tarentines, who were the allies of the Samnites, 
being unable to defend themselves, applied for aid to Pyr'- 
rhiis, king of Ep'irus, the most celebrated general of his 
age. 

26. Against whom did the Romans next turn their arms ? Where 
did they suffer a defeat ? Who was created dictator?— 27. What war 
next followed? W^hat orders were issued by Manlius? What is re- 
lated of Titus, his son?— 28. To whom did the Tarentines apply for 
aid? 



ROME. 97 

Having accepted the invitation, Pyrrhus immediately- 
sailed for Taren'tum with an army of thirty thousand men 
and twenty elephants. The Consul, Lavinus, hastened to 
oppose him. The Romans, unaccustomed to the mode of 
fighting with elephants, were defeated with the loss of fifteen 
thousand men ; but the loss on the side of the Grecian mon- 
arch was nearly the same, and he was heard to say that 
another such victory would compel him to abandon his en- 
terprise. Struck with admiration at the heroism of the 
enemy, he exclaimed, "Oh, with what ease could I conquer 
the world had I the Romans for soldiers, or had they me for 
their King I " 

29. The conduct of Fabric' his, the Roman general, during 
this war, claims universal admiration. On one occasion, 
having received a letter from the physician of Pyrrhus, 
importing that for a proper reward he would poison the 
king, the noble Roman, indignant at so base a proposal, 
gave immediate information of it to Pyrrhus, who, admiring 
the generosity of his enemy, exclaimed, '' It is easier to turn 
the sun from its course than Fabricius from the path of 
honor." Pyrrhus, after suffering a total defeat near Bene- 
ventum, withdrew to his own dominions, and the Romans, 
shortly after his departure, became masters of all the south- 
ern part of Italy. 



CHAPTER III. 



FROM THE FIRST PU'NIO WAR TO THE CONQUEST OF 
GREECE.— B, C. 264 TO 146. 

AS the history of Rome now becomes connected with 
that of Ca7^thage and Sicily, it may not be improper 
to introduce here a short account of those states. Carthage 
is said to have been founded by Di'do, with a colony of 
Tyrians, about nine hundred years before the Christian era. 
The government was at first monarchical, but afterwards be- 
came republican. It is highly commended by Aristotle as 
one of the most perfect of antiquity, but, according to the 
same author, it had two great defects : the first was investing 



Who was sent to oppose him ? What was the issue of the battle ? 
What did Pyrrhus exclaim ? — 29. What is related of Fabricius ? What 
did Pyrrhus say of him ? 

Chapter III.— 1. What is said of Carthage? Of the government? 
9 G 



98 ROME. 

the same person with different public employments ; and the 
second was that a certain income was required before a man 
could attain to any important office, by which means poverty 
might exclude a person of the most exalted merit from 
holding a civil employment. 

2. The supreme power was placed in the Senate ; there 
were two magistrates annually elected, called Sefifetes, whose 
authority in Carthage answered to that of the consuls at 
Rome. Commerce was the chief occupation of the Car- 
thagin'ians, to which they were indebted for their wealth 
and power. Their religion was a degrading superstition ; 
the cruel practice of offering human victims was exercised 
among them. At the time of the Punic Wars the city of 
Carthage had risen in wealth and commercial importance, 
surpassing any other city in the world. It had under its 
dominion a number of towns in Africa, bordering on the 
Mediterranean, besides a great part of Spain, Sicily, and 
other islands. 

3. From Egypt the Carthaginians brought flax, paper, 
corn, etc. ; from the coast of the Red Sea, spices, perfumes, 
gold, pearls, and precious stones ; from Tyre and Phoenicia, 
purple, scarlet, and the like : in a word, they brought from 
various countries all things that contribute not only to the 
convenience, but even to the luxury and pleasures of life. 
They are represented as being greatly wanting in honor and 
integrity. Cunning, duplicity, and want of faith seem to 
have been a distinguishing feature in their character ; hence 
the phrase — Fu'nica Fi'des — Punic Faith, was used to 
denote treachery. 

4. The Carthaginians seem never to have excelled as a 
literary people ; there were, however, among them several 
distinguished scholars. The great JSan'nihal, who in all 
respects was the ornament of the city, was not unacquainted 
with polite literature. Ma'go, another celebrated general, 
wrote twenty-eight volumes upon husbandry, which were 
afterwards much esteemed by the Romans. There is still 
extant a Greek version of an account written by Eanno, 
relating to a voyage made by him with a considerable fleet 
round Africa for the settling of different colonies. Glito'- 

What were its defects?— 2. In what was the power placed? What 
were the magistrates called ? What is said of religion ? Of Carthage, 
at the time of the Funic wars ?— 3. What did the Carthaginians bring 
from Egypt ? From Tyre ? How are they represented ?— 4. Did they 
ever excel as a literary people ? What is said of Hannibal ? Of Mago ? 
What is still extant ? 



ROME. 99 

machus, called in the Punic tongue As'drubal, was a great 
philosopher. Carthage produced several eminent generals, 
among whom HamiVcar, Asdrubal, and Hannibal were the 
most distinguished. 

5. Sicily is said to have been settled by a colony of ^Phoe- 
nicians, previous to the Trojan war ; but the Greeks at a 
later period made settlements on the island. It contained 
many large and populous cities ; of these Syracuse was the 
most populous and commercial. This city, at an early period, 
was under a democratical form of government, which in the 
course of time was overthrown, and a monarchy established 
in its stead. Gelon, one of its sovereigns, is represented as 
possessed of every virtue ; but the tyranny and cruelty of 
his successors caused a revolution in the state, and the regal 
government was abolished. After a period of sixty years 
it was again restored by Diony' sius, a man of great abili- 
ties ; but his son, Dionysius the younger, a weak and ca- 
pricious tyrant, was dethroned by the aid of Timo'leon, an 
illustrious Corinthian, and banished to Corinth, where he 
ended his life in poverty. 

6. The Romans, being anxious to extend their conquests, 
soon found an opportunity of indulging in their design. 
The Mamertines, a people of Campania, obtained assistance 
of the Romans in a war with Hie'ro, King of Syracuse; 
the Syracusans, in their turn, assisted the Carthaginians ; a 
war was thus brought on between the latter and the Romans, 
called the first Pu'nic War. The first object of both powers 
was to obtain possession of Messa'na, a city which com- 
manded the passage of the straits, but it finally became a 
contest for the dominion of the whole island. 

7. But there seemed an insurmountable obstacle to the 
ambition of Rome. She had no fleet, and Carthage was 
sovereign of the sea. The Romans, however, resolved to 
overcome every obstacle that lay in their way to conquest. 
A Carthaginian vessel, which happened in a storm to be 
driven on the coast, served as a model; and in the short 
space of two months, a fleet consisting of one hundred ves- 
sels was constructed and ready for use. The consul Duillius 
was appointed to the command of the armament, and though 

What did Carthage produce ?— 5. What is said of Sicily ? What did 
it contain ? What is said of Gelon ? What was the fate of Dionysius 
the younger ? — 6. What occasioned the first Punic War ? What was the 
object of both powers ? — 7. What was any obstacle to the ambition of 
Kome? How did the Eomans surmount the difficulty? Who was 
appointed to command the fleet ? 



100 ROME. 

much inferior to the enemy in the management of his fleet, 
yet he gained the first naval victory, defeated the Cartha- 
ginians, and took fifty of their vessels. 

8. At the commencement of the war, the Syracusans, who 
had allied with the Carthaginians, changed their course and 
joined the Romans. The Carthaginians, however, after a 
long siege, took the city of Agrigen'tum. A second naval 
engagement soon afterwards took place, in which the Ro- 
mans were again victorious ; the Carthaginians, under Han- 
no and Hamilcar, lost sixty of their vessels. The consul, 
Beg'ulus, in the meantime, was sent by the senate to carry 
the war into Africa ; and having landed on the coast, defeated 
the Carthaginians, and carried his victorious arms to the 
very walls of their capital. But here his good fortune seemed 
to forsake him ; he was signally defeated by the Carthagin- 
ians under the command of Xanthip'pus, a Spartan general, 
and fell into the hands of the enemy. 

9. The Carthaginians, weary of continuing the war, be- 
came desirous of treating for peace, and with this view they 
sent ambassadors to Rome, and among their number was 
Regulus, who had now been detained four years a prisoner, 
havmg previously exacted a promise, on oath, that he would 
return to Carthage if the negotiation should fail. But Reg- 
ulus, not deeming the terms of peace sufficiently advan- 
tageous to his country, strenuously opposed their being 
accepted, and returned to Carthage, where, after the most 
cruel tortures, he was finally put to death, by being placed in 
a barrel driven full of nails, pointing inwards, and in this 
painful situation he continued until he died. 

10. The war was now renewed on both sides with more 
than former animosity ; but at length the perseverance of the 
Romans was crowned with success. Peace was granted to 
the Carthaginians on the most humiliating conditions. It 
was agreed that they should abandon Sicily, pay the Romans 
thirty-two hundred talents, and release their captives. Thus 
terminated the first Punic War, after it had lasted twenty-four 
years. Sicily was now declared a Roman province, but Syra- 
cuse still maintained its independent government. After this 
war the Romans completed the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul ; 

What was the issue of the engagement? — 8. What is said of the 
Syracusans? What was the result of the second naval engagement? 
What is related of Kegulus? — 9. Whom did the Carthaginians send to 
Eome to negotiate a peace ? What did Eegulus do ? How was he put 
to death? — lO. On what conditions was peace granted to the Carthagin- 
ians ? After the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul what did the Romans do ? 



ROME. 101 

and now being at peace with all mankind, they closed the 
temple of Janus for the first time since the reign of Numa. 

11. The Carthaginians had made peace only because they 
were no longer able to continue the war ; they therefore took 
the earliest opportunity of breaking the treaty. They be- 
sieged Sagun'tum, a city in Spain, then in alliance with 
Rome ; and although requested to desist, they refused to 
comply. This refusal led to the second Punic War. To 
Han'nibal, the son of Hamilcar, the Carthaginians intrusted 
the command of their army. This extraordinary man, whilst 
very young, was brought before the altar and made to take 
an oath that he never would be in friendship with the Ro- 
mans, nor desist from opposing their power until he or they 
should be no more. Being now raised to the chief command 
of the forces of his country, though only in the twenty-sixth 
year of his age, he formed the bold design of carrying the war 
into Italy, as the Romans had before carried it into the do- 
minions of Carthage. 

12. For this purpose, leaving Hanno to guard his conquest 
in Spain, he crossed the Pyrenees, entered Gaul, and with an 
army of fifty thousand foot and nine thousand horse, in a 
short time appeared at the foot of the Alps. It was now in 
the midst of winter. The prodigious height of the mountains, 
their steepness, and summits covered with snow, presented a 
picture that might have discouraged any ordinary individual. 
Bat nothing could subdue the resolution of the Carthaginian 
general. At the end of fifteen days he effected the passage of 
the Alps, and found himself on the plains of Italy — but with 
only a half of his numerous army. 

13. Scarcely had he arrived in Italy when the Romans 
hastened to oppose his progress. But Hannibal gained four 
memorable victories, — the first, over Scvp'io near Ticin'us ; 
the second, over Sempro'nius, the consul, in which twenty- 
six thousand Romans were destroyed ; the third, near lake 
Thrasyme'nus over Flaminius ; and the fourth at Can'nas, 
over jEmil'ius and Varro. The last was the most memor- 
able defeat the Romans ever sustained. More than forty 
thousand of their troops were left dead upon the field, to- 
gether with the consul JEmilius. Among the slain were so 

11. What led to the second Punic War? To whom did the Cartha- 
ginians intrust the command of their array ? What is said of him whilst 
young? What bold design did he form? — 12. Leaving Hanno in Spain 
what did Hannibal do? How many days did he occupy in crossing the 
Alps?— 18. What four memorable victories did he now gain? What 
is said of the last ? 
9* 



102 ROME. 

many Roman knights, that Hannibal is said to have sent to 
Carthage three bushels of gold rings, which they wore on 
their fingers. Hannibal, however, either finding it impracti- 
cable to march directly to Rome, or wishing to give his forces 
rest after so signal a victory, led them to Capua, where he 
resolved to spend the winter. 

14. The chief command of the Roman forces was now 
given to Fabius Maximus, styled the Shield, and to Marcel- 
lus, the Sivord, of Rome. After the battle of Can'nse, the 
good fortune of the Carthaginian general seemed to forsake 
him. At the siege of Nola he was repulsed with considera- 
ble loss by Marcelliis, and his army was harassed and weak- 
ened by Fabius. Marcellus took the city of Syracuse after 
a siege of three years, during which time it was chiefly de- 
fended by the genius of the celebrated Ar chime' des. The 
inhabitants were put to the sword, and among them Ar- 
chimedes himself, who was found by a Roman soldier en- 
gaged in his study. 

15. A large army of Carthaginians, sent from Spain into 
Italy, under the command of Asdrubal, the brother of Han- 
nibal, was defeated, and their General slain by the Romans, 
under the command of the consuls, Livy and Nero. The 
very night on which Hannibal was assured of the arrival of 
his brother, Asdrubal's head was cut off and thrown into his 
camp. Scipio, the younger, surnamed Africanus, after his 
return from the conquest of Spain, was made consul at the 
early age of twenty -nine ; but instead of opposing Hannibal 
in Italy, formed a wiser plan, v/hich was to carry the war 
into Africa. On his arrival at the very walls of their capi- 
tal, the Carthaginians, alarmed for the fate of their empire, 
immediately recalled Hannibal from Italy. When the order 
came, the great commander hastened to return to his native 
country, after having kept possession of the most beautiful 
parts of Italy for about fifteen years. 

16. Having arrived in Africa, he marched to Adrime'tum, 
and finally, upon the plains of Za'ma, he was met by Scipio 
at the head of the Roman army ; and after a fruitless attempt 
to negotiate a peace, a tremendous battle was fought, in which 
the Carthaginians were totally defeated, with the loss of 

How many rings did he send to Carthage ? — 14. To whom was the 
command of the Eoman forces now given ? What were they styled ? 
By whom was the city of Syracuse defended ? \Vhat was his fate ? — 
15. What is said of the Carthaginian army ? What plan did Scipio, 
the younger, form? On his arrival what did the Carthaginians do? 
How long had he remained in Italy ? — 16. Where was he met by Scipio ? 



ROME. 103 

twenty thousand of their troops, which were left dead upon 
the field, and as many more taken prisoners. This victory 
was followed by a peace, on conditions that Carthage should 
abandon Spain, Sicily, and all the islands in the Mediterra- 
nean, surrender all her prisoners, give up her whole fleet, 
except ten galleys, and in future undertake no war without 
the consent of the Romans. To these hard conditions the 
Carthaginians were compelled to subscribe. Thus terminated 
the Second Punic War, after having lasted seventeen years, 
n. Hannibal, after this event, passed the last thirteen 
years of his life in exile from his native country, and finally 
took refuge in the court of Pru'sias, king of Bith'ynia. 
The Romans, who were bent on his destruction, sent ^mil- 
ius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand him 
from this king, who, fearing the resentment of Rome, deter- 
mined to deliver up his guest. The great but unfortunate 
General, in order to avoid falling into the hands of his ene- 
mies, destroyed himself by poison. 

18. While the Romans were engaged in hostilities with 
the Carthaginians, they also carried on a vigorous war 
against Philip, king of Macedo'nia, which finally terminated 
in favor of Rome. After this the Romans turned their 
arms against Anti'ochus the Great, king of Syria, who was 
defeated by Scipio, surnamed Asiaticus, in the great battle 
of Magne'sia. A second war followed with Macedonia, 
which terminated in the defeat of Perse'us, the last king of 
that country, at the battle of Pydna ; after which Macedonia 
was reduced to a Roman province. 

19. About this time, Masinissa, the Numidian, made in- 
cursions into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, who 
attempted to repel the invasion. The Romans, pretending 
this as a violation of their treaty, laid hold of it as a pretext 
for commencing the third Punic War, with a determination 
not to desist until the city of Carthage should be destroyed. 
Porcius Cato, one of the most prominent members of the 
senate, strongly insisted on this measure, and usually con- 
cluded his speeches in these words : Delenda est Carthago- — 
Carthage must be destroyed. 

The Carthaginians, conscious of the superior power of the 

What was the issue of the battle? What were the conditions of 
the peace? — 17. Where did Hannibal finally take refuge? How did 
he die? — 18. What other war did the Romans carry on at this time? 
Against whom did they next turn their arms? What happened after 
the battle of Pydna?— 19. What led to the third Punic war? How 
did Cato usually conclude his speeches ? 



104 ROME. 

Komans, endeavored by every species of submission to avert 
the impending' ruin of their country. They yielded to the 
Romans their ships, their arms, and munitions of war ; but 
they were still required to abandon their capital, that it 
might be levelled to the ground. 

20. This demand was received with mingled feelings of 
sorrow and despair ; and, finding no alternative, the wretched 
Carthaginians began to prepare to suffer the utmost extremi- 
ties in order to save the seat of their empire. The vessels 
of gold and silver which adorned their luxurious banquets 
were now converted into arms ; even the women parted with 
their ornaments, and cut off their hair to be made into bow- 
strings. After a desperate resistance for three years, the 
city was taken by Scipio, also called Africanus, and destroyed. 
Thus was Carthage, one of the most renowned cities of an- 
tiquity, with its walls and temples, razed to its foundation. 
Such of the inhabitants as refused to surrender themselves 
prisoners of war either fell by the sword or perished in the 
ruins of their capital. The scenes of horror presented on the 
occasion, it is said, forced tears even from the eyes of the 
Roman general. 

21. The destruction of Carthage was succeeded by the 
conquests of several other states. Corinth was taken and 
destroyed by the Consul Mummius, and Greece reduced to a 
Roman province. Scipio having laid siege to Numantia, a 
city in Spain, the inhabitants, to avoid falling into the hands 
of the enemy, set fire to the town and perished in the flames. 
After this event, Spain fell under the dominion of Rome. 



CHAPTER IV. 



THE SEDITION OF TEE GRAC'CHII; CIVIL WARS; CON- 
SPIRACY OF CATILINE.— B. C. 133 TO 63. 

THE Romans, who had been long distinguished for tem- 
perance and military enterprise, were not as yet a liter- 
ary people. Among them the arts and sciences had been but 

What did the Carthaginians do? — 20. How was this demand re- 
ceived? What did they make of their vessels of gold and silver? 
How long did the siege last ? What is said of the scene ? — 21 . By 
what Avas the reduction of Carthage succeeded ? What is related of the 
inhabitants of Numantia ? 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the Romans? 



EOME. 105 

little cultivated. After the conquest of Greece, a favorable 
change took place ; and with the Mxury of that nation was in- 
troduced at Rome a taste for literature. But as they grew 
in power, luxury and a corruption of manners began to pre- 
vail. By the destruction of Carthage Rome was left without 
a rival. Her arms were everywhere successful. 

2. When she had triumphed, however, over all her ene- 
mies abroad, domestic dissensions began to prevail at home. 
Tihe'rius and Ca'ius Grac' chus, men of eloquence and in- 
fluence, distinguished themselves by declaiming against the 
corruptions which began to prevail among the great, and by 
asserting the claims of the people. Tiberius, the elder of the 
two brothers, while tribune, with a view of checking the 
power of the patricians, and abridging their immense es- 
tates, endeavored to revive the Licin'ian law, which or- 
dained that no citizen should possess more than five hun- 
dred acres of public land. In consequence of this proposal 
a tumult followed, in which Tiberius, together with three 
hundred of his friends, was slain in the streets of Rome by 
the partisans of the senate. 

3. When this tragical event took place, Caius Gracchus, 
in the twenty-first year of his age, was yet in retirement, en- 
gaged in the quiet pursuit of study. The fatal example of his 
brother did not deter him from following a similar career. 
Having been elected to the tribuneship, he procured an 
edict granting the freedom of the city to the inhabitants of 
Latium, and afterwards to all the people on that side of the 
Alps ; he also procured that the price of corn should be fixed 
at a moderate rate, and a monthly distribution of it among 
the people. He then proceeded to an investigation of the 
late corruptions of the senate, and that whole body were 
convicted of bribery, extortion, and sale of offices. These 
measures did not fail to enkindle the resentment of the sen- 
ate. Gracchus was marked out for destruction, and he finally 
fell a victim to their vengeance, with three thousand of his 
partisans, who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome by 
the Consul OpinnHus. 

4. Jugur'tha, the grandson of the famous Masinissa, at- 
tempted to usurp the throne of Numid'ia, by destroying his 

After the conquest of Greece, what took place? — 2. What now began 
to prevail ? What did Tiberius Gracchus endeavor to revive ? In con- 
sequence of this, what followed? — 3. Having been elected to the trib- 
uneship, what did Caius Gracchus procure? What did he then pro- 
ceed to do? What was the consequence of these measures? — 4. Wliat is 
said of Jugurtha? 



106 ROME. 

cousins, Hiem'psal and Adher'bal, the sons of the late king 
Micip'sa. The elder fell a' victim to his treachery, but Ad- 
herbal, the youno;er, having escaped, applied for assistance 
to the senate of Rome ; but that body being bribed by Ju- 
gurtha, divided the kingdom between the two. Jugurtha 
having invaded the territories of Adherbal, defeated and slew 
him in battle, then seized upon his whole kingdom ; but by 
this act he drew upon himself the resentment of Rome. War 
having been declared against him, the command of the army 
was at first confided to Metellus, but when on the point of 
gaining a complete triumph over the king of Numidia, he 
was supplanted in the command by the intrigues of Cains 
Ma'rius, who had the honor of terminating the war. Ju- 
gurtha w^as defeated and taken prisoner, and led to Rome in 
chains, and, having adorned the triumph of the conqueror, 
was cast into prison and starved to death. 

5. About this period the Roman republic w^as again con- 
vulsed by domestic dissensions. The Italian states being 
frustrated in their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome, by 
the intrigues of the senate, resolved to gain by force what 
they could not obtain as a favor. This gave rise to the So- 
cial War, which continued to rage for several years, and is 
said to have involved the destruction of three hundred thou- 
sand men. It was finally terminated by granting the rights 
of citizenship to all who should lay down their arms and 
return to their allegiance. 

6. This destructive w^ar being concluded, the Romans next 
turned their arms against Mithrida'tes, king of Pon'tus, the 
most powerful monarch of the East, who caused eighty thou- 
sand Romans, who dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor, to be 
massacred in one day. In this celebrated contest, styled the 
Mithridatic war, the Roman generals, Syl'la, LucnVlus, and 
Pom'pey, successively bore a distinguished part. The chief 
command in the war against Mithridates w^as first given to 
Sylla, a man of great talents and an able general ; but Ma'rius, 
who had been distinguished for his w^arlike genius and ex- 
ploits for nearly half a century, now in the seventieth year 
of his age, had the address to get the command of the army 
transferred from Si/lla to himself. 

7. Sylla, on receiving this intelligence, and finding his 

Who fell a victim to his treachery ? How did he incur the resent- 
ment of Kome? What was his fate?— 5. What is said of the Italian 
states? What did this give rise to? How was it terminated? — 6. 
Against whom did the Eoraans next turn their arms ? What generals 
took part in the Mithridatic war? What is said of Marius?— 7. On re- 
ceiving this intelligence^ what did Sylla do ? 



ROME. 107 

troops devoted to his interest, marched directly to Rome, 
which he entered as a place taken by storm, and, proceeding 
to the senate, compelled that body to issue a decree declaring- 
Marius to be a public enemy. Marius, in the meantime, 
fled to Africa, and Sylla, after some delay, entered upon the 
Mithridatic war. Cin'na, a partisan of Marius, having col- 
lected an army in his favor, recalled the veteran warrior, and 
they soon presented themselves at the gates of Rome. Ma- 
rius refused to enter the city, alleging that having been ban- 
ished by a public decree, it was necessary that another should 
authorize his return. But before the form of annulling the 
sentence of his banishment was concluded, he entered the 
city at the head of his guards, and ordered a general mas- 
sacre of all who had ever been obnoxious to him. Many of 
those who had never offended him were put to death ; and 
at last, even his own officers could not approach him without 
terror. He next proceeded to abrogate all laws made by his 
rival, and associated himself in the consulship with Cinna. 
Thus having gratified his two favorite passions, vengeance 
and ambition, his bloody career was arrested by death, and 
shortly afterwards Cinna was cut off by assassination. 

8. In the meantime, these accounts were brought to Sylla, 
who was pursuing a victorious campaign against Mithridates ; 
but having concluded a peace with that monarch, he hastened 
to Rome to take vengeance on his enemies. Having entered 
the city, he caused a more horrible massacre than that which 
took place under Marius. He ordered eight thousand men, 
who surrendered themselves to him, to be put to death, while 
he, without being the least discomposed, harangued the 
Senate. The day following he proscribed forty Senators 
and sixteen hundred Knights, and after a short interval 
forty Senators more, with a much greater number of the 
most distinguished citizens of Rome. He then caused him- 
self to be proclaimed perpetual Dictator, but after having 
held it for nearly three years, to the astonishment of all man- 
kind he resigned the dictatorship and retired to the country, 
where he passed the remainder of his days in the society of 
licentious persons and the occasional pursuit of literature. 
After his death a magnificent monument was erected to him, 
with the following epitaph, written by himself:, — "I am Sylla, 
the Fortunate, who, in the course of my life, have surpassed 

What did Cinna do in favor of Marius ? What did Marius refuse ? 
Having entered the city, what did he order ? What did he next do ? — 
8. What did Sylla do on entering the city ? What did he cause to be 
proclaimed? What was the epitaph written by himself? 



108 ROME. 

both friends and enemies ; the former in the good, and the 
latter in the evil I have done them." In the civil war be- 
tween Mariiis and Sylla one hundred and fifty thousand Ro- 
man citizens are said to have been sacrificed, including among 
them more than two hundred Senators and persons of dis- 
tinguished rank. 

9. While the commonwealth was yet distracted by the 
old dissensions new calamities w^ere added. Spar'tacus, a 
Thra'cian, who had been kept at Capua as a gladiator, 
placing himself at the head of an army of slaves, laid waste 
the country, but was at length totally defeated by Gras'sus, 
with the loss of forty thousand men. A few years after this 
event a conspiracy which threatened the destruction of Rome 
was headed by Gat'iline, a man of courage and talents, but of 
ruined fortune and of the most profligate character. A plan 
was concerted for a simultaneous insurrection throughout 
Italy ; that Rome should be fired in different places at once, 
and that in the general confusion Catiline, at the head of an 
army, should enter the city and massacre all the Senators. 
The plot was fortunately detected and suppressed by the 
vigilance and energy of Cic'ero, the great Roman orator, 
who was Consul at the time. Catiline, at the head of an 
army of twelve thousand men, was defeated and slain in battle. 



CHAPTER V. 



FROM THE FIRST TRIUM'VTRATE TO THE DISSOLUTION OF 
THE COMMONWEALTH.— B. C. 60 TO 31. 

POM'PEY, who, on account of his military exploits, was 
surnamed the Great, having been appointed to conduct 
the Mithridatic war, brought it to a successful termination. 
He defeated Mithrida'tes and Tigra'nes, king of Arme'nia, 
reduced Syr'ia, together with Jude'a, to a Roman province. 
On his return to Rome he was honored with a splendid tri- 
umph, which continued three days, during which the citizens 
gazed with astonishment on the spoils of eastern grandeur 
which preceded his chariot. 

How many citizens perished in the civil war ? — 9. What is related of 
Spartacus ? What took place after this event? What plan was formed? 
By whom was it detected ? 

Chapter V. — 1. What is said of Pompey? How was he honored 
on his return to Kome ? 



ROME. 109 

2. Pompej, however, found a great rival in Cras'ms, 
who was the richest man in Rome, and courted popularity 
by his extensive patronage and unbounded liberality. As they 
both aspired to the first place in the republic, a mutual jeal- 
ousy existed between them. Such was the state of things 
when Ju'lius Cae'sar, a young man, who had already dis- 
tinguished himself by his military achievements, had the 
address to effect a reconciliation between them and to ingra- 
tiate himself into the favor of both. Pompey, Crassus, and 
Caesar agreed to appropriate to themselves the whole power 
of the state, and entered into that famous league styled the 
First Trmm'virate. 

3. They immediately proceeded to divide the Roman prov- 
inces among themselves. Pompey, who had remained at 
Rome, received Spain and Africa ; Syria fell to the lot of 
Crassus, and Caesar chose Gaul for his portion, and as soon 
as time permitted proceeded to take possession of his prov- 
ince. Crassus, in a war with the Par'thians, was defeated 
and slain, leaving the empire to his two colleagues. The 
brilliant career of victory which attended the arms of Caesar 
in Gaul, his high military reputation and increasing popu- 
larity, did not fail to awaken a spirit of jealousy in the breast 
of Pompey. Caesar, desirous of trying whether his rival 
would promote or oppose his pretensions, applied to the 
Senate for a continuation of his authority, which was about 
to expire. That body, being devoted to the interests of 
Pompey, denied his request and finally ordered him to lay 
down his government and disband his forces within a limited 
time, undeV the penalty of being considered an enemy to the 
commonwealth. 

4. This hasty measure determined the course of Caesar. 
He now resolved to support his claim by force of arms, and, 
finding his troops devoted to his interest, he immediately 
commenced his march towards Italy. Having crossed the 
Alps, he halted at Ravenna and wrote again to the Senate, 
offering to resign all command if Pompey would follow his 
example ; but that body refused to listen to his demand. 
Proceeding on his march, he soon arrived on the banks of 
the Ru'hicon, a small river separating Italy from CisaKpine 
Gaul, and forming the limits of his command. The Romans 

2. In whom did Pompey find a rival ? Who efiected a reconciliation 
jbetween them ? What did they agree to do ? — 3. Where did Pompey 
remain ? What fell to the lot*of Crassus ? What did Csesar choose ? 
What happened to Crassus ? What was the effect of Caesar's career 
pf victory ? What is said of Csesar? — 4. What did he now resolve? 
10 



110 ROME. 

had always been taught to consider this river as the sacred 
boundary of their domestic empire. CsBsar, therefore, when 
arrived at the banks of this famous stream, stopped short, as 
if impressed with the greatness of his enterprise and its 
fearful consequences ; he pondered for some time in fixed 
melancholy, looking upon the river, and then observed to 
PoVlio, one of his generals, " If I pass this river, what mis- 
eries shall I bring upon my country ; and if I now stop 
short, I am undone." Thus saying, he exclaimed, " The die 
is cast !" and putting spurs to his horse, he plunged into the 
stream, followed by his troops. 

5. The news of Csesar^s movement excited the utmost 
consternation at Rome. Pompey, who had boasted that he 
could raise an army by stamping his foot upon the ground, 
finding himself unable to resist Caesar in Rome, where the 
latter had many partisans, led his forces to Capua, where he 
had a few legions ; thence he proceeded to Brundusium, and 
finally passed over to Dyrachium, in Macedonia. In his 
retreat he was followed by the Consuls and the greater part 
of the Senators. Among them were the famous Cato and 
Cicero, the illustrious orator. 

6. Csssar, in the meantime, having made himself master 
of all Italy in the space of sixty days, marched to Rome, en- 
tered the city in triumph, amidst the acclamations of the 
citizens, seized the public treasury, and possessed himself of 
the supreme authority. On every occasion he manifested the 
greatest liberality and clemency ; he said that he had entered 
Italy, not to injure, but to restore the liberties of Rome. 
After a stay of only a few days he proceeded to Spain, 
where he defeated Pompey^s lieutenant, made himself master 
of the whole country, and again returned victorious to 
Rome. The citizens received him with fresh demonstrations 
of joy and created him Consul and Dictator, but the latter 
ofiice he resigned after he had held it eleven days. 

1. While Cassar was thus employed, Pompey was equally 
assiduous in making preparation to oppose him. All the 
monarchs of the east had declared in his favor and sent him 
large supplies ; his army was numerous and his fleet con- 
sisted of five hundred vessels. Caesar, remaining only eleven 

When he arrived on the banks of the Rubicon what is related of 
Caesar? What did he say?— 5. What is said of Pompey? Where did 
he proceed ? By whom was he followed ? — 6. In the meantime, what 
did Csesar do? What did he manifest? Where did he proceed? 
What was he created? — 7. While Caesar was thus employed, what is 
said of Pompey ? 



R () ME. Ill 

days in Rome, led bis forces in pursuit of Pompey. But before 
coming to any general engagement he once more made an 
effort to bring his rival to an accommodation, offering to 
refer all to the Senate and people of Rome. This overture 
was rejected, on the ground that the people of Rome were 
too much in Cassar's interest. 

8. The two armies came in sight of each other near 
Dyra'chium, where an engagement took place which termi- 
nated in favor of Pompey, who afterwards led his forces to 
the plains of Pharsa'lia, where he determined to await the 
arrival of Caesar, and decide the fate of the empire by a sin- 
gle battle. This was what Caesar had long and ardently 
desired ; and now, learning the resolution of Pompey, he 
hastened to meet him. Everything connected with the con- 
test about to follow was intended to excite the deepest in- 
terest. The armies were composed of the bravest soldiers in 
the world, commanded by the two greatest generals of the 
age, and the prize contended for was nothing less than the 
Roman empire. Pompey's army consisted of upwards of 
fifty thousand men, while the forces of Caesar were less than 
half that number, yet under much better discipline. 

9. As the armies approached, the two Generals went from 
rank to rank, encouraging their men, animating their hopes, 
or lessening their apprehensions. Pompey urged the justice 
of his cause, declaring that he was about to battle in the de- 
fence of liberty and his country. Caesar, on the other hand, 
insisted on nothing so strongly to his soldiers as his frequent 
and unsuccessful endeavors for peace ; he spoke of the blood 
he was about to shed with the deepest regret, and only pleaded 
the necessity which urged him to it. There was only so 
much space between the two armies as to give room for 
fighting. The signal for the onset was given. Csesar's 
men rushed to the combat with their usual impetuosity. 
The dreadful conflict raged with unabating fury from early 
in the morning till noon, when the scales of victory turned 
in favor of Caesar, whose loss only amounted to two hun- 
dred men. Fifteen thousand of Pompeifs troops were left 
dead upon the plain, and twenty-four thousand surrendered 
themselves prisoners of war. 

Before coming to any engagement, what did Csesar do ? — 8. Where did 
a slight engagement take place ? Where did Pompey lead his forces ? 
What is said of Caesar? What of the armies? — 9. As the armies 
approached, what was done ? What did Pompey urge ? On what did 
Csesar insist ? What was the issue of the battle ? What was the num- 
ber of the slain ? 



112 ROME. 

10. Caesar, on this occasion, manifested his usual charac- 
teristic disposition of clemency and humanity. He set at 
liberty the Senators and Roman Knights, and incorporated 
with his own army the greater number of the prisoners ; 
and committed to the flames all Pompey's letters without 
reading them. When viewing the field strewed with his 
fallen countrymen, he seemed deeply affected at the melan- 
choly spectacle, and was heard to say: "They would have 
it so." 

11. The situation of Pompey was deplorable in the ex- 
treme. For thirty years he had been accustomed to victory, 
and ruled the councils of the commonwealth ; a single day 
beheld him precipitated from the summit of power, a miser- 
able fugitive. Escaping from the field of battle, and wan- 
dering along the beautiful vale of Tempe, he finally found 
means of sailing to Lesbos, where he met his wife. Gome'- 
lia. Their meeting was deeply affecting. At the news of 
his reverse of fortune she fainted ; but at length recovering, 
she ran through the city to the sea-side. Pompey received 
her without speaking a word, and for some time supported 
her in his arms in silent anguish. The time, however, 
would not permit him long to indulge in grief. Accom- 
panied by Cornelia, he sailed for Egypt with a few friends 
to seek protection of Ptolemy, whose father he had be- 
friended. But as he approached the shore he was basely 
murdered, while yet within sight of his wife, and his body 
thrown upon the sand. His free^man burnt the corpse and 
buried the ashes, over which was placed the following in- 
scription : '' He can scarcely find a tomb, whose merits de- 
serve a temple." 

12. In the meantime Ciesar lost no time in pursuing his 
rival to Egypt, but on his arrival there the first news he re- 
ceived was the account of Pompey's unfortunate end ; and 
shortly afterwards he was presented with the head and ring 
of the fallen General, but turning his face from the sight, he 
gave vent to his feelings in a flood of tears. He soon after- 
wards ordered a splendid monument to bfe erected to Pom- 
pey's memory. The throne of Egypt, at this time, was 
disputed by Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cleopa'tra ; 

10. What is said of Csesar on this occasion? On viewing the field, 
what was he heard to say? — 11. What was the situation of Pompey? 
How did he receive his wife? Where did he sail? What was his 
fate? What inscription was placed on his tomb? — 12. In the mean- 
time what did Csesar do ? What is said of the throne of Egypt at this 
time? 



ROME. 113 

but Caesar, captivated by the charms of the beautiful queen, 
decided the contest in her favor, and at length reduced Egypt 
to the dominion of Rome. Caesar, after this event, aban- 
doned himself to pleasure in the company of Cleopatra, but 
was soon called to suppress the revolt of Phar'naces, the son 
of Mithridates, who had seized upon Colchis and Armenia. 
Caesar defeated him in a battle at Zela with so much ease 
that, in writing to the senate at Rome, he expressed the 
rapidity of his victory and suppression of the revolt in these 
words: Veni, vidi, vici — " I came, I saw, I conquered.''^ 

13. Leaving the scene of conquest in the East, Ccesar has- 
tened to Rome, where his presence was much required by 
reason of the disorders occasioned by the bad administration 
of Antony, who governed the city during his absence ; but 
tranquillity was soon restored. Caesar's stay at Rome was 
short, being called into Africa to oppose an army raised by 
the partisans of Pompey, under the command of Scipio and 
Cato, assisted by Juba, King of Maurita'nia ; he, however, 
defeated their united forces in the battle of Thapsus. Upon 
this, Cato, who was a rigid Stoic and stern republican, fled 
to Utica, where he resolved to resist the power of Caesar, 
but finding that all was lost, determined not to survive the 
liberty of his country, and killed himself in despair. 

14. At the conclusion of the war in Africa, Caesar re- 
turned to Rome, and celebrated a magnificent triumph, which 
lasted four days. The first was for Gaul, the second for 
Egypt, the third for his victories in the East, and the fourth 
for his victory over Jiiba. He distributed liberally rewards 
to his veteran officers and soldiers. The citizens also shared 
his bounty ; and after distributing a certain quantity of corn, 
oil, and money among them, he entertained them at a public 
feast at which twenty thousand tables were set, and treated 
them to a combat of gladiators. The senate and the people, 
intoxicated by the allurements of pleasure, seemed to vie with 
each other in their acts of servility and adulation towards the 
man who had deprived them of their liberty. He was hailed as 
the father of his country, created perpetual dictator, received 
the title of Emperor, and his person was declared sacred. 

15. Having restored order in Rome he again found himself 
obliged to go into Spain, where Labie'nus and the two sons 

What is said of Caesar ? After the battle of Zela how did Caesar ex- 
press the rapidity of his victory? — 13. What was Caesar's next course? 
What called him into Africa ? What is related of Cato ? — 14. At the con- 
clusion of the war what did Caesar do ? How did he entertain the people ? 
How was he hailed ? &c. — 15. Why was he again obliged to go into Spain ? 
10* H 



114 ROME. 

of Pompey had raised an army against him ; but he com- 
pletely defeated them in an obstinate battle, fought on the 
plains of Munda. Gdesar, by this victory, having triumphed 
over all his enemies, devoted the remainder of his life to the 
benefit of the commonwealth. As clemency was his favorite 
virtue, he readily pardoned all who had at any time bore 
arms against him. Without any distinction of party, he 
seemed only to consider the happiness and prosperity of the 
people. He adorned the city with magnificent buildings ; 
rebuilt Carthage and Corinth, sending colonies to both these 
places. He corrected many abuses in the state, reformed the 
calendar, undertook to drain the Pontine marsh, and intended 
to cut through the isthmus of Peloponnesus. 

16. But while he thus meditated projects beyond the limits 
of the longest life, a deep conspiracy was formed against him, 
embracing no less than sixty Senators, among whom were 
Bru'tus and Gas'sius, whose lives had been spared by the 
conqueror after the battle of Pharsalia. It had been ru- 
mored that a crown would be presented to him on the ides 
of March — the 15th of that month. The conspirators there- 
fore fixed upon that day for the execution of their design. 

Accordingly, as soon as Caesar had taken his seat in the 
senate-house, they assembled around him under the pretence 
of soliciting the pardon of a certain individual who had been 
banished by Caesar's order, and assailed him with their dag- 
gers. The illustrious Roman defended himself for some 
time with great vigor, until seeing Brutus, his friend, whom 
he tenderly loved, among the conspirators, he exclaimed, Ut 
tu Brute ! ''And you too, Brutus P^ then resigning himself 
to his fate and covering his face with his robe, he fell, pierced 
with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue. 

Thus perished Julius Caesar, in the fifty-sixth year of his 
age — a man whose ruling passion was ambition, and whose 
redeeming virtue was clemency.* 

17. No sooner was the death of Cassar known than the 
w^hole city was thrown into the utmost consternation. His 
bleeding corpse was exposed in. the forum ; his friend, Mark 
Antony, pronounced over it a funeral oration, and by his elo- 

* See his biography at the close of the volume ; also, Shakspeare's play 
of Julius Ccesar. 

Having triumphed over all his enemies what did he resolve to do? 
Mention some of the acts he now performed. — 16. What was formed 
against him ? What had been rumored ? Wiiat happened as Csesar took 
his seat in the senate-house ? How did he defend himself ? On seeing 
Brutus what did he say ? What was his age ? — 17. What was done by 
Mark Antony? 



ROME, 115 

quent appeals to the sympathy of the people so inflamed 
their resentment against his murderers that they were 
obliged to escape from the city. 

Mark Antony, who was a man of great military talents, 
but of a most profligate character ; Lep'idus, who was pos- 
sessed of immense wealth ; and Octa'vius Cse'sar, afterwards 
surnamed Augustus, who was Caesar's grand-nephew and 
adopted heir, now formed the design of dividing among 
themselves the supreme authority, and thus establishing 
the second Triumvirate, which produced the most dreadful 
calamities in the Roman Republic. 

18. They stipulated that all their enemies should be de- 
stroyed, each sacrificing his nearest friends to the vengeance 
of his colleagues. Thus Antony consigned to death his 
uncle Lucius; Lepidus, his brother Paulus ; and Octavius 
gave up his friend, the celebrated Cicero, to whom he was 
under the most binding obligation, in order to gratify the 
hatred of Antony. The illustrious orator was assassinated 
in the sixty-fourth year of his age, by PopiFlius Lanus, 
whose life he had saved in a capital case. Rome was again 
deluged in the blood of her citizens ; in the horrible proscrip- 
tion that followed three hundred Senators with two thousand 
Knights, besides many other persons of distinguished rank, 
were sacrificed. 

19. In the meantime Brutus and Cassius, having retired 
into Thrace, collected an army of one hundred thousand men, 
and made the last and expiring effort to restore the common- 
wealth. Antony and Octavius marched against them with 
an army superior in number. Again the empire of the world 
depended upon the issue of a single battle. The two armies 
met on the plains of Philip'pi, and after a dreadful conflict, 
which lasted for two days, the death-blow was given to Ro- 
man liberty, by the total defeat of the republican army. 
Brutus and Cassius resolving not to survive the liberties 
of their country, avoided the vengeance of their enemies by 
a voluntary death. 

20. The power of the Trium'viri being thus established 
upon the ruins of the commonwealth, they began to think 
of enjoying the honors to which they had aspired. Lepidus 
was shortly after deposed and banished. Antony went into 

Who composed the second Triumvirate? — 18. What did they stipu- 
late ? What was the fate of the illustrious orator ? What is said of 
Eome? — 19. What was done by Brutus and Cassius? By whom were 
they opposed ? Where did the armies meet ? What was the issue of 
the battle ? What was the fate of Brutus and Cassius ? — 20. What was 
the fate of Lepidus ? Where did Antony go ? 



116 ROME. 

Greece, and having made a brief stay at Athens, he passed 
into Asia. He proceeded from kingdom to kingdom, at- 
tended by a crowd of sovereigns, exacting contributions and 
giving away crowns with capricious insolence. He sum- 
moned Cleopa'tra, Queen of Egypt, to Tarsus, to answer 
to the charge of having aided the conspirators. She accord- 
ingly came, decked in all the emblems of a royal coquette. 
Her galley was covered with gold ; the sails of purple float- 
ing to the wind ; the oars of silver swept to the sound of 
flutes and cymbals. Cleopatra reclined upon a couch span- 
gled with stars of gold, and such ornaments as the poets 
usually ascribe to Yenus. Antony, captivated by her charms, 
forgot to decide upon her cause, and giving up all the pursuits 
of ambition, abandoned himself to pleasure in the company 
of the beautiful Egyptian Queen. He lavished on her the 
provinces of the Roman Empire ; and having on her account 
divorced his wife Octavia, the sister of his colleague, an open 
rupture took place between him and Octamus. 

21. The great battle of Ac'tium decided the contest in 
favor of Octavius, who, by this victory, was left sole master 
of the empire. After this defeat, Antony put an end to 
his life by falling on his sword; and Cleopatra, to avoid 
being led captive to Rome to grace the triumph of Augustus, 
procured her own death by the poison of an asp.* 



CHAPTER VI. 

ROME AS AN EMPIRE. 

THE C^SARS: AUGUSTUS, TIBERIUS, CALIGULA, CLAUDIUS, 
NERO, GALEA, OTHO, VITELLIUS, VESPASIAN, TITUS, AND 
DOMITIAN.—B. C. 31 TO A. B. 96. 

BY the death of Antony, Octavius, now styled Augustus, 
became sole master of the Roman Empire. Having re- 
turned in triumph to Rome, he endeavored, by sumptuous 

* For a fuller account of ancient Roman history, see LiddelFs His- 
tory of Rome. 

What is related of Cleopatra? What did he lavish on her? What 
took place between him and Octavius? — 21. What is said of the battle 
of Actium ? What was the end of Antony and Cleopatra? 

Chapter VI. — 1. Who now became sole master of the empire ? 



ROME. 117 

feasts and magnificent shows, to obliterate the impressions 
of his former cruelty, and resolved to secure, by acts of 
clemency and benevolence, that throne, the foundation of 
which was laid in blood. Having established order in the 
state, Augustus found himself agitated by difierent inclina- 
tions, and considered for some time whether he should retain 
the imperial authority or restore the republic. By Agrip'ioa 
he was advised to pursue the latter course ; but following the 
advice of Maece^nas, he resolved to retain the sovereign au- 
thority. 

2. Augustus, in his administration, affected an appearance 
of great moderation and respect for the public rights, and 
having gained the affections of the people and his soldiers, 
he endeavored by every means to render permanent their 
attachment. As a military commander he was more fortu- 
nate than eminent; though the general character of his reign 
was pacific, still several wars were successfully carried on by 
his lieutenants. He seemed to aim at gaining a character by 
the arts of peace alone. He embellished the city, erected 
public buildings, and pursued the policy of maintaining or« 
der and tranquillity in every portion of his vast dominions. 
During his reign the temple of Janus was closed for the first 
time since the commencement of the second Funic War, and 
the third time from the reign of Numa. 

Augustus having accompanied Tiberius in his march into 
Illyria, was taken dangerously ill, and, on his return, died at 
No'la, near Capua, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, after 
an illustrious reign of forty-four years. 

3. Augustus was possessed of eminent abilities, both as a 
warrior and a statesman ; but the cruelties and treachery ex- 
ercised by him while a member of the triumvirate, have left 
an indelii3le stain upon his character, and render it doubtful 
whether the virtues which he manifested in after-life sprung 
rather from policy than from principle. The Emperor and 
his chief minister, Maecenas, were both eminent patrons of 
learning and the arts ; and the Augustan age of Roman 
literature has been justly admired by all succeeding times. 
Among those who distinguished his reign were the celebrated 
poets Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, with Livy, the historian. 

What did he endeavor to do? By what was he agitated? Whose 
advice did he follow? — 2. What did Augustus effect? What is said 
of him as a general ? During his reign, what was closed ? Where did 
he die? What was his age and length of his reign? — 3. What is 
said of the abilities of Augustus ? Of what was he patron ? Who were 
distinguished in his reign ? 



118 ROME. 

But the most glorious event which took place during the reign 
of Augustus, was the birth of our Lord and Savior Jesus 
Christ, which happened, according to the best authorities, 
in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, and four years before the 
period commonly assigned for the Christian era. 

4. Augustus, previous to his death, had nominated Tibe'- 
rius to succeed him on the throne. The new Emperor, at 
the commencement of his reign, exhibited a show of modera- 
tion and clemency ; but he soon threw off the mask and 
appeared in his natural character, as a cruel and odious tyrant. 
The brilliant success of his nephew German'icus, in Ger- 
many, excited the jealousy of Tiberius, who recalled him to 
Rome, and is supposed to have caused his death by poison. 
Having then taken into his confidence Seja'nus, a Roman 
knight, who became the minister of his cruelty and pleasure, 
he retired to the island of Capreae, and abandoned himself to 
the most infamous debaucheries. Sejanus, now possessed of 
almost unlimited power, committed the most fearful cruelties 
against the citizens of Rome. Nero and Drusus, the sons 
of Germanicus, were starved to death in prison. Sabinus, 
Gallus, and other distinguished persons, were executed upon 
slight pretences. But the career of the brutal Sejanus was 
of short duration. Being accused of treason, he was sud- 
denly precipitated from his elevation and executed by order 
of the Senate ; and his body was afterwards dragged igno- 
miniously through the streets. 

5. This event seemed only to increase the Emperor's rage 
and cruelty. He became weary of particular executions, and 
gave orders that all the accused should be put to death with- 
out further examination. When one Carnu'lius had killed 
himself to avoid the torture, Tiberius exclaimed: "Ah," 
" how has that man been able to escape me I" He died in 
the seventy-eighth year of his age and twenty-second of his 
reign ; his death was hastened either by strangling or poison. 
In the eighteenth year of this Emperor's reign, our Lord Jesws 
ChyHst suffered death upon the cross. 

6. Tiberius adopted for successor Galig'ula, who com- 
menced his reign under the most favorable auspices, and his 

What was the most memorable event that took place during it ? — 4. 
Whom did Augustus nominate? How did he commence his reign? 
What excited his jealousy? Whom did he take into his confidence? 
What is said of Sejanus? What was his fate? — 5. What orders did 
the emperor give now ? What exclamation did he make? Wlien did 
he die? What took place in the eighteenth year of his reign? — 6. 
By whom was he succeeded ? 



ROME. 119 

first acts were even beneficent and patriotic ; but his subse- 
quent conduct was marked by every species of human de- 
pravity. He assumed divine honors, and caused temples to 
be built, and sacrifices to be ofi'ered to himself as a divinity. 
He took such delight in cruelty, that he wished that all the 
Roman people had but one neck, that he might despatch 
them at a single blow. Happily for mankind the reign of this 
monster was of short duration ; he was assassinated in the 
twenty-ninth year of his age and fourth of his reign, a. d. 41. 

t. After the death of Galig'ula, his uncle Clau'dius, the 
grandson of Mark Antony, was raised to the throne. He 
was a man of weak and timid character, and a slave to the 
most degrading vices. The only remarkable enterprise dur- 
ing his reign was his expedition into Britain. Carac'tacus, 
the patriotic king of that island, after a brave resistance, was 
taken prisoner and carried captive to Rome. As he passed 
through the streets and observed the splendor of the city, he 
exclaimed, " How is it possible that men possessed of such 
magnificence at home, should envy Caractacus in an humble 
cottage in Britain ? " 

Claudius was poisoned by his wife Agrippi'na, in the 
fourteenth year of his reign and sixty-fourth of his age, in 
order to make room for Ne'ro, her son by a former husband, 
A. D. 55. 

8. Nero, now in the seventeenth year of his age, began his 
reign with general approbation ; he was even so much inclined 
to clemency and forgiveness, that, when obliged to sign a war- 
rant for the execution of a criminal, he would exclaim, 
"Would to heaven that I had never learned to write." He 
had received an excellent education under the philosopher 
Seneca, and while he followed the counsels of his illustrious 
preceptor, he governed with much applause. But as he ad- 
vanced in age, every trace of virtue vanished with his in- 
creasing years. Abandoning the advice of his virtuous 
counsellors, he soon gave himself up to every species of 
depravity, and rendered his name proverbial in all succeeding 
ages as a detestable tyrant. The first alarming instance of 
his cruelty, was the revolting execution of his own mother 
Agrippina. Among others who fell victims to his brutality, 

What is said of him ? What did he assume ? How did he die ? — 
7. Who was next raised to the throne? What was his character? 
Who was led captive to Rome ? What did he exclaim ? What was the 
end of Claudius? — 8. Who succeeded him? What is said of Nero? 
By whom was he educated? What was the first alarming instance of 
his cruelty ? Who were some of the other victims ? 



120 ROME. 

were Senec'a, the philosopher, Bur'rush, the prefect of the 
pretorian guard, and Lii'can, the poet. 

9- In his wild extravagance he even caused the city of 
Rome to be set on fire, that it might exhibit the representa- 
tion of the burning of Troy, and stood upon a high tbwer 
that he might enjoy the scene. The conflagration continued 
for nine days, and a great part of the splendid city was 
burnt to ashes. But in order to avert from himself the pub- 
lic odium of this action, he openly charged it upon the 
Christians, who had now become numerous at Rome, and 
published against them a violent persecution, during which 
the two illustrious apostles, St, Peter and St. Paul, suffered 
martyrdom. The former was crucified with his head down- 
wards ; the latter being a Roman citizen, had the honor of 
dying by the sword. Nero having rendered himself con- 
temptible by his follies and crimes, was soon destined to 
finish his career by a tragical end. The army in Spain having 
declared against him, raised GaVha to the throne ; and the 
unhappy tyrant, finding himself deserted by all and con- 
demned by the Senate, avoided falling into the hands of his 
enemies by a voluntary death, in the fourteenth year of his 
reign and the thirty-second of his age. 

10. On the death of Nero, Oalha was acknowledged Em- 
peror by the Senate, as he bad been previously declared by 
the legions under his command. He was a man of much 
prudence and virtue, and had acquired a high military repu- 
tation, but he was now in the seventy-second year of his age, 
and soon became unpopular with the army by his severity 
and parsimony. At length, finding himself unable to sus- 
tain the duties of the government alone, he adopted for his 
successor the virtuous Pi'so. This measure, however, gave 
rise to a revolt in the army headed by O'tho, which termi- 
nated in the death both of the Emperor and Pino, after a 
reign of seven months. Tac'itus says of him, that " had he 
never ascended the throne, he would have been deemed by 
all capable of reigning." 

11. Otho was now declared Emperor by the army ; but in 
ViteVlius he found a formidable rival, who now aspired to 



9. What did he cause ? How long did the conflagration last ? How 
did he avert the odium from himself? During the persecution^ who 
Buflered martyrdom ? What did the army in Spain do ? What was the 
end of Nero ? — 10. Who was now acknowledged by the Senate ? What 
is said of Galba ? What did he adopt ? What was his end ? What 
did Tacitus say of him?— U. Who was now declared Emperor? 

r 



ROME, 121 

the imperial throne. Otho, being defeated, slew himself, after 
a reign of ninety-five days. Upon this event, Vitellius was 
proclaimed Emperor, but having rendered himself odious to 
the people by his profligac}^ and tyranny, he was assassinated 
before he had completed the first year of his reign. At the 
same time, Vespa' sian, who was now at the head of the 
army in Egypt, was proclaimed Emperor by his troops. On 
the arrival of the newly elected Emperor at Rome, he was 
received with universal joy. He had risen from an humble 
origin to the highest station in the state ; he was equally 
distinguished for his affability, clemency, and firmness. He 
ornamented the city by erecting various edifices, built the 
amphitheatre or coliseum, cherished the arts, and was a pa- 
tron of learned men, among whom were Jose'phus, the Jew- 
ish historian, QuintiVian, the orator, and Plin'y, the nat- 
uralist. 

12. The most memorable event of the reign of Vespasian 
was the destruction of Jerusalem by his son Ti'tus. After 
a tremendous siege of six months, the city was taken and 
razed to the ground, verifying the predictions of our Divine 
Savior, that** not a stone should remain upon a stone." 
According to Josephus, the number of Jews that perished 
during the siege exceeded one million, and the captives 
amounted to almost one hundred thousand. Vespasian 
having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, died at 
Campania, in the seventieth year of his age, a. d. T9. 

13. The late Emperor was succeeded by his son Titus, 
who, on account of his amiable virtues, justice, and human- 
ity, obtained the appellation of the ''Delight of mankind." 
Recollecting one evening that he had done no act of benefi- 
cence during that day, he exclaimed, "My friends, I have 
lost a day." His reign is memorable for the great eruption 
of Mount Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Her- 
cula'neum and Pompe'ii, and caused the death of Pliny, the 
naturalist, whose curiosity led him too near the scene. Titus 
died in the third year of his reign and in the forty-first of his 
age ; but strong suspicion was entertained that he was poi- 
soned by his brother Domi'tian, who succeeded to the throne 
A. D. 81. 

What was his fate ? Who succeeded ? What was the end of Vitellius ? 
Who was next ? From what had he risen ? Of what was he the patron ? 
— 12. What was the most memorable event of his reign ? What number 
of Jews perished during the siege? When did he die? — 13. By whom 
was he succeeded? What is said of Titus? For what is his reign 
memorable ? When did he die ? 
11 



122 ROME. 

14. Domitian was another Nero in his character. He 
caused himself to be worshipped as a god. Many of the most 
illustrious men of Rome fell victims to his cruelty. He ban- 
ished the philosophers from the city and raised a dreadful 
persecution against the Christians. He frequently shut him- 
self up in his chamber and amused himself by catching flies 
and piercing them with a bodkin, hence his servant, being 
asked if any one was with the Emperor, replied, " No, not 
even a fly." His reign was signalized by the success of the 
Roman arms in Britain, under the command of Agric'ola, a 
distinguished general who had been sent to the country hj 
Yespasian, and conquered all the southern portion of the 
island. Domitian was assassinated at the instigation of his 
wife, in the fifteenth year of his reign, a. d. 96. He was the 
last of those Emperors called the Twelve Gsesars, Julius 
Csesar, the Dictator, being considered the first — although 
Augustus was the first who was generally styled Emperor. 



CHAPTER yil. 

FROM NERVA TO CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.— A. D. 96 TO 305. 

AFTER the death of Domitian, Ner'va was elected to the 
throne. He was a man distinguished for virtue and 
clemency, but did not possess sufficient energy to suppress 
the disorders of the empire ; and having adopted Tra'jan 
for his successor, he died after a short reign of sixteen months. 
2. Trajan, a native of Seville, in Spain, is esteemed one 
of the greatest and most powerful of the Roman Emperors. 
He was equally distinguished for aff'ability, clemency, and 
munificence. On presenting the sword to the Prefect of the 
pretorian guard, he made use of these remarkable words: 
'' Make use of it for me, if I do my duty ; if not, use it 
against me." The Senate conferred on him the title of Op- 
timiis, the Best, and that body was long accustomed to salute 
every newly elected Emperor with this expression : " Reign 
fortunately as Augustus, and virtuously as Trajan.''^ 

14. What is said of Domitian, his successor ? What instance is given 
of his cruelty ? By what was his reign signalized ? How did he die ? 
Of whom was he tlie last ? 

Chapter VII. — 1. Who was now elected to the throne? What is 
said of Nerva? — 2. What is said of Trajan ? What words did he make 
use of on presenting the sword to the Prefect of the guard ? 



ROME. 123 

3. Trajan was one of the greatest generals of his age. He 
enlarged the boundaries of the empire, subdued the Par- 
thians, brought under subjection Assyria, Arabia Felix, and 
Mesopotamia; and in commemoration of his victory over 
the Dacians he erected a pillar at Rome, which bears his 
name, and which still remains as one of the most remarkable 
monuments of that city. 

He w^as a munificent patron of literature, and in his 
reign Pliny, the younger, Ju' venal, and Plu'tarch flourished. 
Although this prince was much celebrated for his virtues, 
still his character has been tarnished by a want of equity 
with regard to the Christians, who were persecuted during 
his reign. He died of apoplexy, in the sixty-third year of 
his age and the twentieth of his reign, A. D. lit. 

4. Trajan was succeeded by A'drian, his nephew, who, in 
some respects, was the most remarkable of the Roman Em- 
perors. His administration was generally just and benefi- 
cent. He was highly skilled in all the accomplishments of 
the age ; he composed with great beauty, both in prose and 
verse ; he pleaded at the bar, and was one of the best orators 
of his time. Deeming the limits of the empire too extensive, 
he abandoned the career of conquest and devoted himself to 
the arts of peace. He spent thirteen years in visiting the 
provinces of the empire, and during his progress he reformed 
abuses, relieved his subjects from many burdens, and rebuilt 
various cities. While in Britain, he caused a turf wall to be 
erected across the island from Carlisle to Newcastle, in order 
to prevent the incursions of the Picts. 

5. He rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and changed its name 
to ^lia Capitolina. In consequence of an insurrection of 
the Jews, he sent against them a powerful army, which de- 
stroyed about one thousand of their towns and nearly six 
hundred thousand of these unfortunate people ; he then ban- 
ished all those who remained, and by a public decree forbade 
them to return within view of their native soil. He passed 
several wise regulations, among which was a law prohibit- 
ing masters to kill their slaves, as had been before allowed, 
but ordained that they should be tried by the laws enacted 
against capital ofi*ences. Adrian, having adopted for his suc- 

3. What was Trajan ? What did he erect ? Of what was he the patron ? 
What has tarnished his character ? When did he die ? — 4. By whom 
was he succeeded ? In what was he skilful ? What did he abandon ? 
In what did he spend thirteen years of his reign ? What did he do in 
Britain ? — 5. What city did he rebuild ? What severity did he exer- 
cise against the Jews ? Whom did he adopt for his successor ? 



124 ROME. 

cessor Titus Antoni'nus, died after a prosperous reign of 
twenty -two years, and in the sixty-third year of his age, a.d. 138. 

6. Antoninus, surnamed the Pious, was eminently distin- 
guished for his public and private virtues, although his reign 
was marked by few striking events. He showed himself one 
of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and mod- 
eration. During his reign, St. Justin, the Martyr, wrote his 
'' Apology for the Christians," and directed it to the Empe- 
ror, the Senate, and the people of Rome. Still many Chris- 
tians continued to suffer for their faith. Having adopted 
Mar'cus Au'relius Antoninus for his successor, he expired 
at Lorium, near Rome, in the twenty-third year of his reign 
and in the seventieth of his age, a. d. 161. 

7. Marcus Aurelius was esteemed as a model of pagan 
virtue, and was greatly attached, both by nature and educa- 
tion, to the Stoic philosophy, which he exemplified in his life, 
as well as illustrated in his book, entitled "Meditations." 
While engaged in a war with the Germans, his army expe- 
rienced a remarkable deliverance through the prayers of a 
Christian legion then serving under his command. The 
Emperor, in a letter to the Senate, after stating the dis- 
tressed situation of his army, says: "I put up my fervent 
prayers to the gods for our relief; but the gods were deaf. 
I knew there were many Christians in the army. I called 
them around me and commanded them to address their God 
in our behalf. No sooner had they fallen upon their knees 
to pray, than a copious and refreshing rain fell from the 
heavens. But -while the rain was refreshing to us, it drove 
furiously against our enemies, like a tempest of hail, at- 
tended with vivid flashes of lightning and dreadful claps of 
thunder. Wherefore, since the prayers of these people are 
so powerful with their God, let us grant to the Christians 
full liberty of professing themselves such, lest they employ 
their prayers against us. My will is that their religion be 
no longer considered a crime in them." 

8. The Christian soldiers who had saved the Roman army 
by their prayers were afterwards distinguished by the name 
of the Thundering Legion. But notwithstanding the hu- 
mane disposition of Aurelius, many Christians suffered dur- 

When did he die ? — 6. What did Antoninus show himself? Who wrote 
an apoloary for the Christians ? When and where did he die ? — 7. What 
is said of Marcus Aurelius ? In a war with the Germans, what did he 
experience ? Can you relate, in substance, his letter to the Senate ? — 
8. What is said of the Christian soldiers ? Of the Christians during 
his reign ? 



ROME. 125 

ing his reign, owing chiefly to the violence of Yerus, his 
colleague in the empire. Among the most illustrious who 
received the crown of martyrdom were St. Jus'tin, and St. 
PoVycarp, the illustrious Bishop of Smyrna. Aurelius died 
in the nineteenth year of his reign and the fifty-ninth of his 
age, A. D. 180. He was the last of those styled the five good 
Emperors. 

9. Aurelius was succeeded by his degenerate son. Com- 
mo'dus, whose whole reign was a tissue of folly, cruelty, 
and injustice ; but his crimes finally brought him to a tragi- 
cal end. He was assassinated in the thirteenth year of his 
reign and thirty-second of his age. Per'tinax, a man of 
humble birth, who had risen by his merit, and was styled 
the ''tennis-ball of fortune," on account of the various con- 
ditions through which he had passed, was proclaimed Empe- 
ror by the pretorian guards. But having given ofTence by 
his severity, in correcting abuses, he was put to death by the 
hands of the very soldiers who had raised him to the throne 
only three months before. 

10. The Empire was now put up for sale by the soldiers, 
and purchased by Did'ius Julian'us, for the sum of $9,000,- 
000. But the new Emperor only enjoyed the honors of 
royalty for the space of five months, being assassinated 
by the order of Sep'timns Seve'rus, who was proclaimed 
Emperor in his stead. Severus having triumphed over his 
two competitors, Ni'ger and Alhi'nus, governed with great 
ability. He made an expedition into Britain, and built a 
stone wall extending from Solway Frith to the German 
Ocean, and nearly parallel with that of Adrain. He died at 
York, in the eighteenth year of his reign, and in the sixty- 
sixth of his age, a. d. 211. 

11. Severus left the Empire to his two sons, Carac'alla and 
Geta, but Caracalla resolving to govern alone, murdered his 
brother in the arms of his mother. His tyranny and cruelty 
at length excited against him the resentment of Maori' nus, the 
commander of his forces, who caused him to be assassinated, 
in the sixth year of his reign. Macri'nus was immediately 
declared Emperor in his place, but, after a reign of fourteen 

Who were the most illustrious of the sufferers? At Avhat age, and 
when did he die ?— 9. What is said of Commodus ? What was his end ? 
By whom was he succeeded ? What was the fate of Pertinax ? — lO.What 
was now done with the empire? By whom was it purchased? What 
was his end ? Who succeeded ? When and where did Severus die ? — 
11. To whom did Severus leave the empire ? What is related of Carac- 
aUa ? What was his fate ? Who was declared emperor ? 
11* 



126 ROME. 

months, was in his turn supplanted by Heliogab'alus, by 
whose command he was put to death. Heliogabalus was 
only in the fourteenth year of his age when he succeeded to 
the throne, yet he showed himself to be a monster of vice, 
cruelty, and extravagance. He was murdered by the soldiers, 
and his body thrown into the Tiber, after a brief reign of 
four years, having in that short period married and divorced 
six wives. 

12. Alexan'der Sev'erus, his cousin, who was chosen to 
succeed him, was a mild and amiable prince, whose excel- 
lent character shines with redoubled lustre when contrasted 
with those who preceded and followed him. His acquire- 
ments were equal to his virtues. He excelled in music, paint- 
ing, sculpture, and poetry. During an expedition against 
the Germans, who had made an irruption into the Empire, 
he was murdered by a mutiny of his soldiers, in the four- 
teenth year of his reign, and twenty-ninth of his age, a. d. 
235. 

13. On the death of Alexander, Max'imin, who had headed 
the mutiny against him, was elevated to the throne. Maxi- 
min was the son of a herdsman of Thrace, and was no less 
remarkable for the symmetry of his person and extraordi- 
nary strength than for his gigantic stature, being eight and 
a half feet in height. He was also distinguished for his 
military talents. Previous to his elevation he was remark- 
able for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue ; but after his 
accession to the throne he became a monster of cruelty, 
and seemed to sport with the terrors of mankind. He was 
finally assassinated by his soldiers, in the third year of his 
reign. 

14. The interval from the reign of Max'imin, and that of 
Diocle'tian, was filled by sixteen reigns, which furnish little 
that is pleasing, interesting, or instructive. Of all the Empe- 
rors who successively occupied the throne during that period 
of forty-six years, Claudius and Tacitus alone died a natural 
death. The Emperor Yale'rian, in a war with Sa^por, King 
of Persia, was defeated and taken prisoner. The Persian 
monarch treated his captive with the greatest indignity and 

By whose command was he put to death, and who succeeded ? What 
is said of Heliogabalus? What was his end? — 12. Y/ho was chosen to 
succeed him ? What is said of Alexander Severus ? How and when 
did he die? — 13. Who succeeded to the throne? For what was Maxi- 
min remarkable? How did he die? — 14. How many reigns between 
that of Maximin and Diocletian? What is related of the emperor 
Valerian ? 



ROME. 127 

cruelty. He used him as a footstool for mounting his horse, 
and finally ordered him to be put to death, then caused him 
to be flayed, and his skin to be painted red, and suspended 
in one of the Persian temples, as a monument of disgrace 
to the Romans. 

15. The reign of Aure'lian was distinguished for brilliant 
military achievements. He defeated the Goths and repelled 
the incursions of the Germans ; but his most renowned 
victory was that over Zeno'hia, the famous queen of Pal- 
my'ra, who fell into his hands ; her secretary, Longi'kus, 
the celebrated critic, was put to death by the order of the 
conqueror. On his return to Rome, Aurelian was honored 
with a most splendid triumph. Zenobia was reserved to 
grace the scene, bound in chains of gold, and decked with a 
profusion of pearls and diamonds. 

16. Diocletian, who was a son of a Dalma'tian slave, rose 
by his merit from the rank of a common soldier to that of 
an eminent commander, and was finally elevated to the 
throne, on the death of Numerian, a. d. 284. 

Two years after his accession he associated with himself, 
in government, his friend Maximin ; and in the year 292 
they took two other colleagues, Gale'rius and Constan'tius, 
each bearing the title of Caesar. The Empire was now di- 
vided into four parts, under the government of two Emperors 
and two Caesars, each nominally supreme, but in reality con- 
trolled by the superior talents of Diocletian. 

1*1. At this time happened the tenth and last persecution 
of the Christians, which continued for several years with so 
much violence that the brutal tyrants boasted that they had 
extinguished the Christian name. 

Diocletian and Maximin, in the midst of their triumphs, 
surprised the world by resigning their dignities on the same 
day and both retiring into private station, a. d. 304. It is 
generally believed that they were compelled to take this step 
by Galerius, who, together with Constan'tius, was imme- 
diately afterwards acknowledged Emperor. Diocletian seems 
to have been contented with his lot. He retired to Salona, 
in his native country, Dalmatia, where he lived eight years, 
and amused himself in cultivating a small garden. Maximiij 

15. For what was the reign of Aurelian distinguished? What was 
his most renowned victory ? What is said of Zenobia ? — 1 6. What is 
said of Diocletian ? Whom did he associate with himself in the gov- 
ernment? How was the empire now divided? — 17. What happened 
at this time ? How did Diocletian and Maximin surprise the world ? 
Where did Diocletian retire ? What is said of Maximin ? 



128 ROME. 

attempted several times, but in vain, to resume the sovereign 
power which he had abdicated, and even to murder his son- 
in-law, Con'stantine ; but being detected, he slew himself in 
despair. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF CON'STANTINE TO THE FALL OF 
THE WESTERN EMPIRE.— A. D. 306 TO 476. 

CONSTAN'TIUS died at York, in Britain, having pre- 
viously appointed his son Con'stantine, surnamed the 
Great, his successor. Con'stantine had several competitors 
for the crown. Of these, Maxentius was the most formida- 
ble, who had made himself master of Italy and Rome. As 
the Emperor was on his march, at the head of his army, 
against his rival, he saw in the heaven, after mid-day, a lu- 
minous cross, bearing this inscription in Greek : ^ By this 
conquer. ''^'^ This circumstance is related by several historians 
of that period, particularly by Eusebius, in his life of Con- 
stantine. In consequence of this vision the Emperor avowed 
himself the friend and supporter of Christianity, and caused 
a splendid banner, called the Laba'rum, to be carried before 
his army, bearing a representation of the cross he had seen 
in the heavens. He now prosecuted the war against Max- 
en'tius with redoubled energy. A final battle was fought on 
the banks of the Tiber, in which Constantine was victorious. 
Maxentius himself perished in the river, a. d. 312. 

2. On the following day Constantine made a solemn entry 
into Rome, where he was received with universal joy, and 
hailed as the deliverer of the Empire. As a lasting monu- 
ment of this event, a magnificent triumphal arch was built 
at the foot of Mount Palatine, which remains at the present 
time. He published an edict in favor of Christianity, which 
he now openly embraced, and claims the honor of being en- 
rolled as the first Christian Emperor. He put an end to the 
persecution of the Christians, also to the combats of gladi- 



Chapter VIIT.— 1. What had Constantine? What is related of him 
as he marched at the head of his army ? In consequence of this vision, 
what did he do ? Where was a final "battle fought ? — 2. On the follow- 
ing day what did Constantine do ? What did he publish ? 



ROME. 129 

ators, and other barbarous exhibitions. His reign forms an 
important era in ecclesiastical history, as the Roman govern- 
ment now lent all its influence to support that religion which 
it had vainly but repeatedly attempted to destroy. The 
reign of Constantine is memorable for the celebrated Council 
of Nice, convened for the purpose of condemning the heresy 
of A7^ius, who denied the divinity of Christ. 

3. But the most important event of his reign was the re- 
moval of the capital of the Empire from Rome to Byzan'- 
tium, in Thrace, where he built a magnificent city, called 
from his own name, Constantino'ple. . As the Empire had 
long been verging to ruin, this measure is thought by many 
to have hastened its downfall. Constantine died at Nico- 
med'ia, after an illustrious reign of thirty-one years, and the 
sixty-third of his age, a. d. 337. The character of Constan- 
tine has been variously represented by difTerent writers. His 
greatest fault was his severity towards his son Crispus, a 
young prince of the most amiable character ; the Emperor 
being so far deceived by artful calumny as to believe him 
guilty of the most atrocious design, and in the first moment 
of indignation caused him to be pat to death. He has also 
been charged with a want of political sagacity in removing 
the seat of government. Still, whatever may have been his 
faults, we must admire and esteem his eminent qualities. 
The splendor of his military, political, and religious achieve- 
ments has deservedly gained for him the surname of Great, 
which posterity has conferred upon him 

4. Constantine left the Empire divided among his three 
sons, Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius. In the 
space of a few years the two former were slain, leaving Con- 
stantius, the youngest, sole master of the Empire. But his 
character was marked by weakness, jealousy, and cruelty. 
During his reign the Empire was harassed and weakened 
by the inroads of the barbarians from the north and the 
incursions of the Persians on the eastern provinces. Con- 
stantius died, after an unfortunate reign of twenty-four years, 

A. D. 361. 

5. Constantius was succeeded by his cousin Ju'lian, sur- 
named the Apostate, on account of his having renounced 
Christianity, in which he had been educated, and relapsing 

What does his reign form? For what is it memorable ?— 3. What 
was the most important event of his reign? Where and when did he 
die ? What is said of his character ? — 4. How did Constantine leave 
the empire? What is said of Constantius? Where did he die ? — 5. By 
whom was Constantius succeeded ? 

I 



130 ROME. 

into Paganism. He was a man possessed of considerable 
learning, of great military talents, but the slave of malice 
and the most bigoted superstition. He restored the pagan 
worship, and impiously attempted to suppress the Christian 
religion. With a design of falsifying the prediction of our 
Blessed Savior, he even undertook to reassemble the Jews 
and to rebuild their Temple ; but his design is stated, by a 
number of ancient writers, to have been miraculously de- 
feated by the eruption of fire-balls from the ground, which 
dislodged the stones, melted the iron instruments, and dis- 
persed the workmen. This royal apostate was slain in a Avar 
with the Persians, in the second year of his reign, and the 
thirty-second of his age, a. d. 363. 

6. Julian was succeeded by Jovian, who restored the 
Christian religion and recalled St. Athana'sius, who had been 
banished by the order of Julian ; but he died suddenly, after 
a mild and equitable reign of seven months. 

Valenti'nian, who was chosen to succeed him, associated 
with himself in the Empire his brother Yalens, who governed 
the eastern provinces ; and from this period the division of 
the Empire into Eastern and Western became fixed and per- 
manent. The barbarians continued to make inroads into 
different parts of the Empire, and the Goths finally obtained 
a settlement in Thrace. The domestic administration of 
Yalentinian was equitable and wise. His temper, however, 
was violent. On a certain occasion, when transported with 
rage, he ruptured a blood-vessel, and expired in a few hours, 
in the fifty-fourth year of his age, and in the twelfth of his 
reign. 

1. In the east, Val'ens held the sceptre with a weak and 
inefficient hand. Favoring the Arian heresy, he threw the 
provinces into confusion and contention, and at the same 
time exposed his dominions to the inroads of the barbarians. 
He was defeated and slain in an expedition against the Goths, 
in the fifteenth year of his reign. 

Gra'tian, the son and successor of Yalentinian, associated 
with himself Theodo'sius, afterwards surnamed the Great. 
The reign of this illustrious monarch was signalized by the 
complete triumph of Christianity and the downfall of pagan- 
ism throughout the Roman dominions. By his great mili- 

What is said of Julian ? What did he restore ? What did he under- 
take ? What is said of his design ? How did he die ? — 6. What is said 
of Jovian ? Who was chosen to succeed hirn ? What is said of the 
barbarians? How did Yalentinian die? — 7. What is said of Yalens? 
How did he die? Whom did Gratian associate with himself? 



ROME. ' 131 

tary abilities he successfully repelled the encroachments of 
the barbarians, and by his wise administration he strength- 
ened in some measure the Empire, which had been already 
hastening to its ruin. After a splendid reign of eighteen 
years, Theodosius left his dominions to his two sons, Eono'- 
rius in the West, and Area' dins in the East, a. d. 395. 

8. Theodosius was the last monarch who presided over 
both divisions of the Empire. By all the authors of that 
period, with the exception of Zos'imus, a Pagan writer, he 
is represented as a model of every public and private virtue, 
and worthy of the imitation of all Christian princes. His 
inclinations were naturally violent ; but if he committed any 
fault contrary to his usual clemency and meekness, he soon 
repaired it in a manner worthy of his character. On one 
occasion the populace of Thessalo'nica, in a tumultuous in- 
surrection, stoned their governor to death. Theodosius, on 
receiving intelligence of this outrage, in a moment of irrita- 
tion, gave orders for the soldiery to be let loose on the in- 
habitants of the city for three hours ; the commission was 
executed with so much fury, that seven thousand persons 
were put to the sword. But no sooner was the great St. 
Am'hrose, Archbishop of Milan, informed of this awful deed, 
than he declared to the Emperor that he could not admit him 
into the church until he had atoned, by a public penance, for 
the enormity of the massacre he had occasioned. Theodo- 
sius humbly submitted to the decision of the prelate, and re- 
mained excluded from the church for eight months. 

9. During the weak reign of Honorius and Arcadius, the 
barbarians made a successful irruption into the Empire, and 
possessed themselves of several of the most fertile provinces. 
The Goths, under the famous AVaric, spread their devas- 
tations to the very walls of Constantinople, and filled all 
Greece with the terror of their arms. Alaric then pene- 
trated into Italy at the head of a powerful army, but was 
defeated, with great loss, by the Eomans under the command 
of Sti'lieo. After the death of this General, Alaric invaded 
Italy a second time, and having taken and pillaged several 
cities, he at length pitched his camp before the walls of 
Rome. This famous capital, which had for ages been the 



To whom did Theodosius leave his dominions ? — 8. What is said of 
Theodosius ? Of his inclinations ? On one occasion what is related of 
him? What did St. Ambrose do? — 9. What happened during the 
reign of Honorius and Arcadius ? What is said of the Goths ? What 
did Alaric do a second time ? 



132 ROME. 

mistress of the world, and had enriched lierself by the spoils 
of vanquished nations, was now reduced to the greatest ex- 
tremities by famine and pestilence. 

10. Rome was finally taken by Alaric, who gave up the 
city to be plundered by his soldiers, with a charge to spill 
the blood of none but those whom they found in arms, and to 
spare all those who took refuge in the churches. The fearful 
devastation continued for six days, during which the fierce 
barbarians, notwithstanding the injunctions of the chieftain, 
indulged their cruelty and ferocity without pity or restraint. 
Alaric now prepared to invade Sicily and Africa, but death 
suddenly put an end to all his ambitious projects. The Goths, 
however, having elected Ataid^phus for their leader, took pos- 
session of the southern part of Gaul, and laid the foundation 
of their kingdom in Spain. 

11. A few years after the sacking of Home by Alaric, the 
country was again devastated by the Huns, a barbarous people 
of Scythian origin, under the command of At'tila, their king, 
styled the scourge of God. Having overrun the Eastern 
Empire, he invaded Gaul with an army of five hundred 
thousand men ; but he was defeated on the plains of Cha- 
lons, by the combined forces of the Romans, under ^'tius, 
and the Goths, under Theod'oric, with a loss of one hundred 
and sixty thousand men. The warlike spirit of Attila v/as 
checked by this defeat, but not subdued ; placing himself 
again at the^head of his army, he shortly afterwards invaded 
Italy, and having extended his ravages to the gates of Rome, 
compelled Valentin'ian III. to purchase a peace by the pay- 
ment of immense sums of money, with his sister Honoria 
in marriage. Attila died shortly after this event ; and his 
body is said to have been buried, enclosed in three coffins, 
the first of gold, the second of silver, and the third of iron. 
The men who dug the grave were put to death, lest they 
should reveal the place of his burial. 

12. Every circumstance now seemed to hasten the down- 
fall of the empire, which had been long on the verge of ruin. 
^'tius, the only man capable of defending it against its 
numerous enemies, was slain by the hand of Yalentinian him- 
self, on a pretended charge of conspiracy. 

10. What is said of Rome ? How long did the devastation continue ? 
What is said of Alaric?— ll. By whom was the country next devas- 
tated ? With how large an army did he invade Gaul ? Where and 
by whom was he defeated ? How did Valentinian purchase a peace ? 
What is said of the body of Attila ?— 12. What is said of iEtius ? How 
did Valentinian die? 



ROME. 133 

Shortly after this event, Valentinian was assassinated in 
his turn, at the instigation of Petrohiius Max'imus, who 
was proclaimed Emperor in his stead, and the empress 
Eudox'ia invited Gen^seric, king of the YanMals, to avenge 
the murder of her husband. He eagerly embraced the op- 
portunity, landed in Italy with a numerous army of Moors 
and Vandals, took the city of Rome, which he gave up to his 
soldiers to be pillaged for eleven days ; and after having de- 
stroyed many of the monuments of art and literature which 
Alaric had spared, and enriched himself with the spoils of 
the city, he returned to Carthage. 

13. From the reign of Valentinian III. the Western em- 
pire dragged out a precarious existence under nine successive 
Emperors, for the space of twenty-one years, until its final ter- 
mination, in 4Y6, by the resignation of Romulus Augustus, the 
last of its Emperors, to Odoa'cer, the chief of the Heru'li, 
who assumed the title of king of Italy. Thus terminated 
the Roman Empire in the West, twelve hundred and twenty- 
nine years after the building of Rome, and five hundred and 
seven years after the battle of Actium. Such, observes 
Goldsmith, was the end of this mighty Empire, which had 
conquered mankind by its arms, and instructed the world 
by its wisdom ; which had risen by temperance and fell by 
luxury; which had been established by a spirit of patriotism, 
and sunk to ruin when the Empire had become so extensive 
that a Roman citizen was but an empty name.* 



CHAPTER IX. 

ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



THE political state or government among the Romans 
varied very much during the successive periods of its 
existence. It was at first a monarchy. It afterwards be- 

■^For a fuller account of the Roman Empire, see Fredet's Modern 
History. 

What was done by Eudoxia? What is said of Genseric? — 13. From 
the reign of Valentinian, what is said of the Western empire? When 
did the empire terminate? Who was the last of the emperors? How 
long had the Roman empire lasted ? What does Goldsmith observe ? 

Chapter IX. — 1. What is said of the political state? What was it 
at first? 

12 



134 ROME. 

came a republic, with a preponderance of aristocratic power, 
which gradually gave way to the influence of the people. 
The republican form of government was overthrown by Ju- 
lius Caesar, and finally destroyed by Augustus, when it be- 
came a desp()tic monarchy. 

2. The Kings of Rome were not absolute or hereditary, 
but limited and elective. They could neither enact laws nor 
make war or peace, without the consent of the Senate and 
people. They wore a white robe, adorned with stripes of 
purple or fringed with the same color ; their crown was gold, 
and their sceptre was made of ivory. They sat in the curule 
chair, which was a chair of state made of ivory, and were 
attended by twelve lictors, carrying fasces, which were a 
bundle of rods, with an axe bound in the middle of them. 

3. The Senate at first consisted of one hundred members, 
but was afterwards increased to two hundred by Tarquin 
the elder, and towards the latter days of the republic it con- 
sisted of one thousand. The Senators were at first nomi- 
nated by the King, but afterv>^ards chosen by the consuls, 
and finally by the censors. They usually assembled three 
times a month, but oftener if special business required it. A 
decree passed by a majority of the Senate, and approved 
of by the Tribunes of the people, was termed a senatus con- 
sultum. The Senators were styled patres, or fathers, on 
account of their age, gravity, and paternal care of the state, 
and from them the patricians derived their designation. The 
magistrates of the Roman republic were elective, and pre- 
vious to their election they were called candidati, or candi- 
dates, from the white robe which they wore while soliciting 
the votes of the people. 

4. The Consuls had the same badges as the Kings, with 
the exception of the crown ; and their authority was nearly 
equal, except that it was limited to one year. In dangerous 
conjunctures, they were clothed with absolute power by the 
solemn decree, " that the consuls take care that the common- 
wealth sustain no harm." In order to be a candidate for the 
consulship, the person was required to be forty-three years 
of age. The Praetors were next in dignity to the Consuls, 

What did it become? By whom was the repubhcan government 
overthrown ?— 2. What is said of the kings? What did they wear? 
By whom were they attended?— 3. Of what did the Senate consist? 
How often did they assemble? What was a decree termed? What 
were senators called ? — 4. What is said of the consuls ? In dangerous 
conjunctures, with what were they clothed ? What age was required ? 
Who were next in dig-nitv ? 



ROME. 135 

and in their absence supplied their place ; it was their duty 
to preside at the assemblies of the people, and to convene 
the senate upon any emerg-ency. 

5. The office of Censor was esteemed more honorable than 
that of consul, though attended with less power. There 
were two Censors, chosen every five years, and their most 
important duty was to take, every fifth year, the census of 
the people, after which they made a solemn lustration, or 
expiratory sacrifice in the Campus Martins. The Tribunes 
were officers, created to protect the plebeians against the pa- 
tricians. The Ediles were officers whose duty it was to take 
care of the public edifices, baths, aqueducts, roads, markets, 
etc. The Questors were elected by the people to take care 
of the public revenue. These were of two orders ; the mili- 
tary Questors, who accompanied the army, and took care of 
the payment of soldiers, and the provincial Questors, who 
attended the Consuls into the provinces and received the 
taxes and tribute. 

6. The assemblies of the people, in order to elect their 
magistrates, or to decide concerning war or peace, and the 
like, were called a comitia ; of which there were three kinds, 
the curiata, centuriala, and the tributa. The comitia curi- 
ata consisted of an assembly of the resident Roman citizens, 
who were divided into thirty curias. The comitia centuri- 
ata were the principal assembly of the people, in which they 
gave their votes according to the census. They elected, 
during these comitia, the consuls, praetors, and censors ; im- 
portant laws were enacted, and cases of high treason were 
tried ; and they were held in the Campus Martins. The 
comitia tributa were an assembly in which the people voted 
in tribes, according to their regions and wards ; and thej^ 
were held to create inferior magistrates, to elect certain 
priests, etc. The comitia continued to be assembled for 
upwards of seven hundred years, until the time of Julius 
Caesar, who abridged that liberty, and shared with the people 
the right of creating the magistrates. Augustus infringed 
still further on this right, and Tiberius finally deprived the 
people altogether of the privilege of election. 

t. The Priests among the pagan Romans did not form a 

5. What is said of the office of censor? Who were the tribunes? 
Who were the ediles? The questors? Of how many orders were 
they ? — 6. What was the assemblies of the people called ? Of Avhat did 
the comitia curiata consist? What was done at the comitia centuriata? 
What was the comitia tribnta f How long did they continue to assem- 
ble ? — 7. What is said of the priests ? 



136 ROME. 

distinct order of the citizens, but were chosen from the most 
honorable men of the state. The Pontifices, fifteen in num- 
ber, were priests who judged all causes relating to religion, 
regulated the feasts, sacrifices, and all other sacred institu- 
tions. The Pontifex Maxinius, or High-Priest, was a person 
of great dignity and authority ; he held his office for life, and 
all other priests were subject to him. The Augurs w^ere fif- 
teen in number, whose duty it was to foretell future events, 
to interpret dreams, oracles, prodigies, etc. The Haruspices 
were priests, whose business it was to examine the beasts 
offered in sacrifice, and from them to divine the success of 
any enterprise, and to obtain omens of futurity. The Quincle- 
cemviri were fifteen priests who had the charge of the Sib'yl- 
line books, which were three prophetic volumes, said to con- 
tain the fate of the Roman empire ; they were procured from 
a woman of extraordinary appearance during the reign of 
Tarquin the Proud. The Vestal Yirgins were females, con- 
secrated to the worship of Yesta. 

8. The Gladiators were persons who fought with weapons 
in the public circus or amphitheatre for the amusement of 
the people. These combats were introduced about four hun- 
dred years after the foundation of the city, and became the 
most favorite entertainment. The combatants were at first 
composed of captive slaves and condemned malefactors ; but 
in the more degenerate period of the empire free-born citizens, 
and even Senators, engaged in this inhuman and disgraceful 
amusement, in which numbers were destroyed. After the 
triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were ex- 
hibited for one hundred and twenty-three days, in which 
eleven thousand animals of different kinds were killed, and 
ten thousand gladiators fought. 

9. The toga and the tunica were the most distinguished 
part of the Roman dress. The toga, or gown, worn by the 
Roman citizen only, was loose and flowing, and covered the 
whole body ; it had no sleeves, and was disposed in graceful 
folds, which gave the wearer a majestic appearance. The toga 
virilis was assumed by young men at the age of seventeen 
years. The tunica, or tunic, was a white woollen vest, 
which came down below the knees and was fastened about 
the waist by a girdle. The dress of the women was similar 

Of the Pontifices? Who was the Pontifex Maximusf The Augurs? 
The Haruspices ? The Quindecemviri ? The Vestal Virgins ?— 8. Who 
were the Gladiators? When were these combats introduced? What 
is said of them after the triumph of Trajan?— 9. What was the toc/af 
The toga virilis f The tunica ? What is said of the dress of women ? 



ROME. 137 

to that of the men ; their tunic, however, was longer and 
furnished with sleeves ; they wore jewels, bracelets, rings, 
and various other ornaments in great profusion. Hats and 
caps were worn by the Romans only on journeys, or at the 
public games ; in the city they usually went without any 
covering on the head. 

10. The principal meal among the Romans was their sup- 
per, which they took about four o'clock in the afternoon. The 
breakfast was not a regular meal : it was taken by each one 
separately and without order, and their dinner was only a 
slight repast. In the early ages the diet of the Romans con- 
sisted chiefly of milk and vegetables, and they sat upright at 
the table on benches ; but in the latter days of the republic, 
when riches were introduced by their conquests, luxury was 
carried to excess, and they then reclined at their meals on 
sumptuous couches. These couches were similar to the 
modern sofa, and generally intended to hold three persons. 
People so reclined upon them that the head of the one was 
opposite the breast of the other, and in serving themselves 
the}^ used only one hand. 

11. Fathers at Rome were generally invested with the 
power of life and death over their children. The exposure 
of infants was at first somewhat frequent, but at length en- 
tirely ceased. Slaves constituted a large portion of the pop- 
ulation of Rome. Their lives were at the disposal of their 
masters. They were not only employed in domestic service, 
but also in various trades and manufactures. They were 
considered as mere property, and were publicly sold in the 
market-place ; and if capitally convicted, their punishment 
was crucifixion. At the feasts of Saturn and at the Ides of 
August the slaves were allowed great privileges, and masters 
at those periods waited on th^m at table. 

12. The system of education among the Romans, which 
was in its highest state of improvement during the reign of 
Augustus, was much admired. The utmost attention was 
bestowed on the early formation of the mind and character. 
The Roman matrons themselves nursed their own children, 
and next to the care bestowed on their morals, a remarkable 
degree of attention seems to have been given to their lan- 
guage. From the earliest dawn of reason a regular course 

Of hats, etc.? — 10. What was the principal meal? What is said of 
breakfast ? In the early ages, what was the diet of the Komans ? How 
did they sit at table? What is said of these couches? — 11. What is 
said of fathers ? Of infants ? What is said of slaves? — 12. What is said 
of education ? Of the Roman matrons ? 
12* 



138 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

of discipline was pursued by some matrou of the family, and 
as the children grew towards manhood they were habituated 
to all the athletic exercises that could impart agility or grace, 
and fit them for the profession of arms. Eloquence and the 
military art were the surest road to preferment. Oratory, 
which led to the highest honors in the state, was the favorite 
study at Rome, and was taught as a science in the public 
schools. In this art the name of Cicero stands pre-eminent. 
But Roman prose-writing reaches its highest perfection in 
the historical works of Lwy, Caesar, and Tacitus. Poetry 
among the Romans, as with most of other nations, appears 
to have been the earliest intellectual eifort. The names that 
adorn the Roman drama are those of Liv'ius Andron'ictis, 
En'nius, Plau'tus, and CseciVius. In epic poetry, Vir'gil 
has excelled all other poets of ancient times, with the excep- 
tion of Homer. Philosophy was first taught at Rome 
about the end of the third Panic war, and was introduced 
from Greece. The system of the Stoics was at first most 
generally received ; the philosophy of Aristot'le was after- 
wards greatly cultivated ; but with the introduction of lux- 
ury the philosophy of Epicu'rus became fashionable. 



CHAPTER X. 

' MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

ALL the nations of antiquity, except the Jews, were 
heathens and idolaters. Their system of religion was 
called Polytheism, as it acknowledged a plurality of gods, 
and they worshipped their divinities by various images called 
idols. The first objects of adoration among the pagan na- 
tions, after they had lost the correct knowledge of the true 
God, were the heavenly bodies. Hence we find that the 
names of the principal gods correspond with the names of 
the chief planets, such as Sat'urn, Ju'piter, Ve'nus, etc. 
Osi'ris and I' sis, the principal deities among the Egyptians, 
are supposed to have been the sun and moon. In the pro- 

What was pursued ? What is said of eloquence, etc. ? Of orator}' ? 
Of poetry? 

Chapter X. — 1. What were all the nations of antiquity? What 
was their system called? What were the first objects of adoration? 
Vv^hat do we find ? In the process of time, what did they do ? 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 139 

cess of time, they built temples to the heavenly bodies, as 
being subordinate agents of the divine power, and by wor- 
shipping them, they supposed they would obtain the favor of 
the Deity. From this they descended to the worship of ob- 
jects on the earth, as they were thought to represent the 
stars or the Deity. Thus idolatry arose shortly after the 
Deluge. 

2. In the course of time, adoration was bestowed on those 
objects which were thought to confer peculiar benefits on man. 
Thus the Egyptians regarded the Nile as sacred, because 
by its inundations it fertilized the earth. Again, great heroes 
and persons, who, during their lives, had been benefactors 
to the human race, were deified after their death. From 
these, the ancient pagans descended to the worship of the 
most degrading objects, and paid divine honors to beasts, 
birds, insects, and even to vegetables, such as leeks and 
onions ; moreover, temples were dedicated to evil demons and 
the most debasing passions. 

3. The Babylonians adored the heavenly bodies, and 
among them Jupiter was worshipped, under the name of 
Begins, to whom magnificent temples were erected at Baby- 
lon. The Ca'naanites and Syrians worshipped Ba'al, Tarn'- 
muz, Ma'gog, and As'tarte. Mo'loch was the Saturn of the 
Phoenicians and Carthaginians, to whom human victims, 
particularly children, were immolated. Baal-peor was the 
idol of the Mo'abites ; his rites were degrading and cruel. 
Da'gon was the chief god of the Philistines ; his figure was a 
compound of a man and a fish. Among the Celts, the sacred 
rites were performed in groves dedicated to their gods, to 
whom human victims were frequently offered ; colossal 
images of wicker-work were filled with human criminals and 
consumed by fire. 

4. According to the pagan theology, there were twelve 
chief deities engaged in the creation and government of the 
universe. Agreeably to this theory, Jupiter, Nep'tune, and 
VuVcan fabricated the world : Ce'res, Ju'no, and Dia'na 
animated it ; Mer'cury, Ve'nus, and ApoVlo harmonized it ; 
and lastly, Ves'ta, Miner' va, and Mars presided over it with 
a guardian power, and these twelve were called the celestial 
deities. 

2. What did the Egyptians regard ? Why ? To what was divine 
honors paid ? — 3. What is said of the Babylonians ? What was Mo- 
loch ? Baal-peor? Dagon? Among the Celts, where were the sacred 
rites performed? — 4. Agreeable to this theory what is said of the world? 
What were these twelve called ? 



140 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

Jupiter, who was represented as supreme, and styled the 
father of the gods and men, was the son of Saturn and 
Cyh'ele, and was born on Mount Ida, in Crete. He deposed 
his father, and divided the world between himself and his 
two brothers, Neptune and Pluto. Neptune had the juris- 
diction over the sea, and Pluto that of the infernal regions ; 
but the sovereignty of heaven and earth he reserved to him- 
self. One of his chief exploits was the conquest of the 
Ti'tans or giants, who are said to have placed several moun- 
tains on each other, in order to scale the heavens. He is 
generally represented as a majestic personage, seated upon 
a throne, with a sceptre in one hand and thunderbolts in the 
other. The heavens trembled at his nod, and he governed all 
things except the Fates. 

5. ApoFlo was the son of Jupiter^ and Lato'na, and was 
born on the island of Delos. He presided over music, medi- 
cine, poetry, the fine arts, and archery. For his offence in 
killing the Cy'clops, he was banished from heaven, and 
obliged to hire himself as a shepherd to Adme'tus, King of 
Thessaly, in which employment he remained for nine years. 
His exploits are represented as extraordinary ; among others 
he caused Mi'das to receive a pair of asses' ears, for pre- 
ferring Pan''s music to his; he turned into a violet the 
beautiful boy Hyacinth, whom he accidentally killed ; and 
changed Daph'ne into a laurel. 

6. Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He was the god 
of war, and the patron of all that is cruel and furious ; the 
horse, the wolf, the magpie, and vulture were offered to him. 
During the Trojan war. Mars was wounded by Diome'des^ 
and retreating to heaven, he complained to Jupiter that Mi- 
nerva had directed the weapon of his antagonist. He is 
represented as an old man, armed and standing in a chariot 
drawn by two horses, called Fright and Terror. His sister 
Bello'na was his charioteer. Discord went before him in a 
tattered garment with a torch, Anger and Clamor followed. 

T. Mer'cury, the son of Jupiter and Mai' a, was the mes- 
senger of the gods, and the patron of travellers, shepherds, 
orators, merchants, thieves, and dishonest persons. He was 
doubtless some enlightened person, in a remote age, who, on 

What is Jupiter styled ? What did he do ? What is one of his chief 
exploits ? How is he represented ? — 5. Who was Apollo ? Over what 
did he preside ? From where was he banished ? What were his ex- 
ploits ? — 6. Who was Mars ? Of what was he the god ? During the 
Trojan war what is said of him ? How is he represented ? — 7. What 
was Mercury? 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 141 

account of his actions and services, was worshipped after his 
death. He seems to have been the first who taught the arts 
of civilization. 

VuKcan, the son of Jupiter and Juno, was the g-od of fire, 
and the patron of those who wrought in the metallic arts. 
He was kicked out of heaven by Jupiter, for attempting to 
deliver his mother from a chain by which she was suspended. 
He continued to descend for nine successive da3^s and nights, 
and at length fell upon the isle of Lemnos, but was crippled 
by the fall. He was the artificer of heaven, and forged the 
thunderbolts of Jupiter, also the arms of the gods. 

8- Juno, styled the queen of heaven, was both the sister 
and wife of Jupiter. In her character she was haughty, 
jealous, and inexorable. In her figure she was lofty, grace- 
ful, and majestic. Iris, displaying the rich colors of the 
rainbow, was her usual attendant. 

Minerva, the goddess of wisdom, was the most accom- 
plished of all the goddesses, and the only divinity that seems 
equal to Jupiter. She is said to have instructed man in the 
arts of shipbuilding, navigation, spinning, and weaving. Her 
worship was universally established, but at Athens it claimed 
particular attention. The owl was sacred to her. 

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, was the daughter 
of Jupiter and Dio'ne, or, as some say, she sprurfg from the 
foam of the sea. Her worship was licentious in a high de- 
gree, and attended with the most disgraceful ceremonies. 

Dia'na was the queen of the woods and the goddess of 
hunting. She devoted herself to perpetual celibacy, and 
was attended by eighty nymphs. The poppy was sacred 
to her. 

9. Ce'res, the daughter of Saturn and Cyhele, was the 
goddess of corn and harvest, and the first who taught the 
cultivation of the earth. The Eleusin'ian Mysteries were 
celebrated in her honor. 

Yesta was the goddess of fire and the guardian of houses. 
She was represented in a long flowing robe, a veil on her 
head, a lamp in one hand, and a javelin in the other. 

10. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, was the second in 

What did he teach ? Who was Vulcan ? What is said of him ? 
What did he forge ? — 8. What was Juno ? What was she in her char- 
acter? In her figure? What was Minerva? What is said of her? 
What was sacred to her? Who was Venus ? What is said of her wor- 
ship? Who was Diana? — 9. Who was Ceres? What were celebrated 
in her honor ? What was Vesta ? How was she represented ? — 10. What 
was Neptune ? 



142 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

rank among the gods, and reigned over the sea. He is rep- 
resented seated on a chariot drawn by dolphins and sea- 
horses ; in his hand he holds a trident or sceptre, with three 
prongs. Oce'anus, a sea god, was called the father of rivers. 
Tri'ton, also a marine deity, was the son of Neptune and 
Amphritite ; he was his father's companion and trumpeter. 
Ne'reus, a sea god, the son of Oceanus, was the father of 
fifty daughters, who were called Nereides. Pro'tevs, the 
son of Oceanus, could foretell future events, and change 
himself into any shape. 

11. The infernal deities were Pluto and his consort Pros' - 
erpine, Plii'tus, Cha'ron, the Furies, Fates, and the three 
judges, Mi'nos, uE'acus, and Rhadaman'thus. Pluto, who 
exercised dominion over the infernal regions, was the brother 
of Jupiter. The goddesses all refusing to marry him, on 
account of his deformity and gloomy disposition, he seized 
upon Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, in Sicily, opened a 
passage through the earth, and carried her to his residence ; 
and having married her made her queen of hell. There were 
no temples raised to his honor. Plutus, an infernal deity, 
was the god of riches ; he was lame, blind, injudicious, and 
timorous. 

12. Cha'ron was the ferryman who conducted the ghosts 
across the river Le'the, on their way to Pluto's regions. He 
is represented as an old man, with white hair, a long beard, 
and garments deformed with filth, and remarkable for the 
harshness of his speech and ill temper. None could enter 
Charon's boat if they had not received a regular burial; 
without this, they were supposed to wander a hundred years 
amidst the mud and slime of the shore. Each ghost paid a 
small brass coin for his fare. 

13. The Furies were three in number, namely : Alec' to, 
Tisiph'one, and Megse'ra. They had the faces of women, 
but their looks were full of terror — they held lighted torches 
in their hands, and snakes lashed their necks and shoulders. 
Their office was to punish the crimes of wicked men, and to 
torment the consciences of secret ofi'enders. 

The Fates were three daughters of Jupiter and Themis. 
Their names were Clo'tho, Lach'esis, and At'ropos. They 

How is she represented ? Who was Oceanns ? Triton ? Nereus ? Pro- 
teus?— 11. Name the infernal deities. What is said of Pluto? Who 
was Plutus ? What was he ?— 1 2. Who was Charon ? How is he rep- 
resented ? What is said of those who did not receive a regular burial ? 
—13. Name the Furies. What had they? What was their office? 
Name the Fates. 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 143 

decided on the fortunes of mankind. Clotho drew the thread 
of life. Lachesis turned the wheel ; and Atropos cut it 
with her scissors. The duty of the three judges was to 
assign the various punishments of the wicked, adapted to 
their crimes, and to place the good in the delightful realms 
of Elys'ium. 

14. There were many other divinities of various charac- 
ters, such as Bac'chus, Cupid, the Muses, the Graces, etc. 
Bacchus, the son of Jupiter and Semele, was the god of 
wine. His festivals were celebrated by persons of both 
sexes, who dressed themselves in skins, and ran shouting 
through the hills and country places ; these solemnities were 
attended with the most disgusting scenes of intoxication and 
debauchery. The fir, the fig-tree, ivy, and vine were sacred 
to him. 

Cupid, representing the passion of love, was a beautiful 
winged boy ; often with a bandage over his eyes, also with 
a bow and arrow in his hand, with which to wound the 
hearts of mortals. 

The Muses were nine in number, namely : Calli'ope, who 
presided over eloquence and heroic and epic poetry ; Clio 
presided over history ; Er'ato was the Muse of elegiac and 
lyric poetry ; Euter'pe presided over music ; Melpom'ene 
was the inventress and muse of tragedy ; Polyhym'nia was 
the muse of singing and rhetoric; Terpsich'ore presided 
over dancing ; Thali'a, the muse of pastoral and comic 
poetry ; and Ura'nia, who presided over hymns and sacred 
subjects ; and also the muse of astronomy. 

15. The Graces were the three daughters of Bacchus and 
Venus. They were supposed to give to beauty all its charms 
of attraction. Besides these, there were several rural deities, 
such as Pan, the god of shepherds and hunters ; Sylva'nus, 
who presided over the woods ; -Fria'pus, the god of the 
gardens ; Ter'minus, who was considered as watching over 
the boundaries of land, and others. 

The Si'rens were three fabulous persons, who are said to 
have had the faces of women, and the lower parts of their 
bodies like a fish. They had such melodious voices that 
mariners were often allured and destroyed by them. The 

What did each one do ? What was the duty of the judo^es ?— 14. Name 
some of the other divinities. What was Bacchus ? What is said of 
his festivals ? What is said of Cupid ? What was the number of the 
Muses, and over what did they preside?— 15. Who were the Graces? 
What was Pan? Sylvanus? Priapus? Terminus? What were the 
Sirens ? 



144 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 

Gor'gons were three sisters, who are said to have had the 
power of transforming those into stones who looked upon 
them. The Har'pies were winged monsters, which had the 
face of a woman, the body and wings of a vulture, claws on 
the hands and feet, and the ears of a bear. 

16. The objects of worship among the ancient nations, 
particularly among the Greeks and Romans, are said to have 
amounted to thirty thousand. To these temples were erected, 
festivals instituted, games celebrated, and sacrifices offered, 
with a greater or less degree of pomp, according to the de- 
gree of estimation in which the deity was held. The most 
celebrated temples of antiquity were those of Dia'na at 
Eph'esus, of Apollo, in the city of Mile'tus, of Ceres and 
Proserpine, at JEleusis, and that of Jupiter Olympus, and 
the Parthenon of Minerva, at Athens. The famous temple 
of Diana, at Ephesus, one of the seven wonders of the world, 
was completed two hundred and twenty years after its foun- 
dation. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length, 
and two hundred in breadth : the roof was supported by one 
hundred and twenty-seven columns, sixty feet high, placed 
there by so many kings. This temple was burnt on the 
night that Alexander the Great was born, by ErosHratus, 
who alleged that he perpetrated the deed merely for the pur- 
pose of immortalizing his name in destroying so magnificent 
a building. 

n. Oracles were consulted, particularly by the Greeks 
and Romans, on all important occasions, and their determi- 
nations were held sacred and inviolable. The most cele- 
brated oracles were those of Apollo, at Delphi and Belos ; 
the oracles of Jupiter, at Dodo'na; and that of Tropho'- 
nius, where future events were made known to those who 
sought to know the will of the gods. The responses were 
generally delivered by a priestess, who was supposed to be 
divinely inspired ; but usually in verse, and couched in very 
am-biguous language, so that one answer would agree with 
various and sometimes opposite events. It must, however, 
be confessed that sometimes the answers of the oracles were 
substantially correct, a fact which is proved by many pas- 
sages in ancient history ; but it is a question among the 
learned, whether the answers of the oracles should be ascribed 

The Gorgons? The Harpies?— 16. What was the number of objects 
of worship ? Name the most celebrated temples. What is said of the 
temple of Diana at Ephesus? By whom was it burnt? — 17. What is 
said of Oracles? Which were the most celebrated? How were the 
responses given? What is a question among the learned? 



MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. 145 

to the operations of demons, or only to the imposture of men. 
The best established opinion is, that demons were the real 
agents in the oracles, although we find many instances in 
Grecian history where the Delphic priestess suffered herself 
to be corrupted by presents, and gave an answer to suit the 
will or to gratify the passions or inclinations of those who 
came to consult her. 

18. There is one fact, however, deserving of notice, namely, 
that the responses of the oracles ceased when the Christian 
religion began to be preached — not on a sudden, but in pro- 
portion as its salutary doctrines became known to mankind. 
Tertul'lian, in one of his apologies, challenges the pagans 
to make the experiment, and consents that a Christian should 
be put to death if he did not oblige the oracles to confess 
themselves 'devils. Lactan'tius informs us that every Chris- 
tian could silence the oracles only by making the Sign of the 
Cross. When Julian, the Apostate, went to Daphne, near 
Antioch, to consult Apollo, the god, notwithstanding all the 
sacrifices offered to him, continued mute, and only recovered 
his speech to answer those who inquired the cause of his 
silence, and ascribed it to the interment of certain Christian 
bodies in the neighborhood. 

19. The ancients generally inculcated the belief in a future 
state of existence, believing that the virtuous would be happy 
in Elysium, or Paradise, and that the wicked would be 
miserable in Tar'tariis, or Hell. Of hell, they drew the 
most gloomy and horrible picture. It was a place where 
men, who had been remarkable for their crimes while on 
earth, were punished with a variety of tortures. On the 
other hand, the prospect of Elysium was described as beau- 
tiful and inviting in the highest degree. In that delightful 
region there was no inclement weather, but mild winds con- 
stantly blew from the ocean to refresh the inhabitants, who 
lived without care or anxiety; the sky was perpetually serene, 
and the fertile earth produced, twice a year, delicious fruit 
in abundance. 

• 
What is the best established opinion? — 18. What fact deserves no- 
tice? Of what does Lactantins inform us? What is related of Julian? 
— 19. Of what did the ancients inculcate the belief? Of hell, what pic- 
ture did they draw ? How was Elysium described ? 
13 K 



MODERN HISTORY. 

BOOK V. 



YARIOUS periods have been adopted by different his- 
torians for the commencement of Modern History. 
Some have chosen the establishment of the Western Empire, 
under Charlemagne, a. d. 800 ; others again have taken the 
downfall of the Western Empire of the Romans, a. d. 476, 
while the majority assume the commencement of the Chris- 
tian era. That portion of Modern History styled the Middle 
Ages, will first claim our attention. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE MIDDLE AGES. 



THE period intervening between the fall of the Western 
Empire of the Romans to the destruction of the Eastern 
Empire is usually called the Middle Ages,* and by some 
bigoted authors, the Dark Ages. The great majority of 
writers in our language unjustly represent Europe, during 
those ages, as sunk in ignorance and barbarism. How far 
they are correct in their estimate, we leave for the student 
to judge, after giving a summary view of these ages sepa- 
rately. 

2. The Sixth Century. — During the early part of the pre- 
ceding century the Roman Empire of the West had been 

* Some historians regard the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries only 
as the Middle Ages. 

Chapter T. — 1. What period has been denominated the Middle 
Ages ?— 2. What is said of the early part of the preceding century ? 

HG 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 147 

rapidly on the decline, until its final overthrow in the year 
476. The invasion of the northern hordes of Goths, Van- 
dals, and Huns, under Alaric, Attila, and other leaders, had> 
swept from the face of Italy almost every trace of civiliza- 
tion, and planted on its once fertile plains a wild and savage 
race of barbarians. Under the oppressive reign of Anasta'- 
sius in the East, insurrections prevailed in the provinces, 
and sedition at Constantinople itself. The Empire was as- 
sailed from without by the Persians, Bulgarians, Arabians, 
and the barbarous tribes from the North. Under his suc- 
cessors, Jus'tin and Justin'ian, an uninterrupted series of 
war continued to rage in different parts of the Empire. Italy 
and the West had been severed from it towards the close of 
the preceding century. After a long and sanguinary con- 
test, during which Rome was repeatedly taken and retaken 
by the contending powers, Italy was again reconquered by 
Belisa'rius and Nar'ses, the generals of Justinian. 

3. In Gaul, the Burgundians, Franks, and Visigoths were 
almost incessantly at war. In Africa and in Spain, the 
Goths and Vandals were constantly engaged in civil broils 
with each other, or at war with the Romans ; and England, 
during the whole of this century, struggled for its liberty 
with the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, who eventually estab- 
lished their empire in the island, called the Hep'tarchy. In 
this violent and general confusion that prevailed throughout 
Christendom, we may easily infer what must have been the 
decay of science and literature. The rude barbarians, who 
had subjugated nations more polished than themselves, were 
indebted only to their courage for success, and valued no 
other arts than those of managing, with effect, the buckler 
and the sword. Literature and the fine arts they esteemed 
below the notice of warriors who had subdued the kingdoms 
of the West. Whatever of learning survived the wreck of 
barbarian devastation found an asylum in the monastic in- 
stitutions, and in those towns where a bishop held his resi- 
dence, at which a school of literature and theology was 
usually established. 

4. Among the writers of the sixth century, the following 
names are eminently distinguished : St. Gregory the Great, 

What had the invasion, etc., swept from the face of Italy ? What 
prevailed in the East ? Under Justin and Justinian, what continued ? 
What is said of Italy?— 3. What prevailed in Gaul? In Africa and 
Spain ? In England ? In this violent confusion, what may we infer ? 
What is said of the rude barbarians? Where did learning find an asy- 
lum? — 4. Name some of the distinguished writers of the sixth century. 



148 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

Pope ; St. Csesa'rius, Archbishop of Aries ; Bvag'rius the 
Syrian, an ecclesiastical historian; St. Fulgen'tius, an African 
bishop ; St. Gregory of Tours, who in ten books wrote the 
History of the Franks ; and also St. John Climac'us. 

5. The Seventh Century. — At the commencement of this 
century, Pho'cas, a tyrant possessed of almost every vice 
that can inflict disgrace on humanity, without a redeeming 
virtue, occupied the throne at Constantinople, While he 
amused himself with the oppression of his subjects, the bar- 
barians overrun the provinces of the empire, and filled them 
with carnage and desolation. Under the reign of Herac'lius, 
his successor, the state was delivered from external foes ; he 
wrested the provinces from the hands of the Persians, and 
spread the terror of his arms over the East. But his vast 
dominions had been depopulated by the continual wars which 
the empire had to sustain against the ravages of the barba- 
rians, and by the absolute and arbitrary power of cruel and 
avaricious governors, while that portion of his subjects which 
still remained groaned under the weight of oppression. 

6. Such was the state of things when Mahometanism rose, 
and swept like an impetuous torrent over the countries of 
the East, bearing down before it every monument of art and 
every trace of civilization. As the conquerors of the West 
had formerly esteemed no other arts than those of arms, so 
the new race of ignorant warriors in the East, equally blind 
to the advantages which science bestows, in the first trans- 
ports of success destroyed every trace of literature and every 
vestige of art. Such was the rapidity of their conquests, 
that before the end of this century they had established their 
dominion over Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, and Egypt. 
After the taking of Alexandria, the celebrated library of that 
city, containing from five to seven hundred thousand volumes, 
was consigned to the flames. 

t. The flame of war still continued to rage on the plains 
of Italy, where the restless Lombards resisted every effort 
of the Eastern emperors to reestablish their authority. 
France was portioned out into provinces, nominally gov- 
erned by kings, who abandoned themselves to the pursuit 
of pleasure, and indulged in effeminacy and sloth, and left 
the administration of the government to a minister, styled 

5. Who now occupied the throne of Constantinople? Under the 
reign of Heraclius, what was done ? — 6. In this state of things, what 
arose ? What did the new race of warriors do ? After the taking of 
Alexandria, what was done? — 7. Where did the flame of war still con- 
linue ? What is said of France ? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 149 

the Mayor of the palace. Spain was in a state of anarchy 
and civil broils. No less than fourteen kings reigned in 
that country during this century, and of this number one- 
half were dethroned, or fell by the hand of some unprincipled 
usurper. 

The general state of literature and polite arts continued 
to decline during this century. While religious fanaticism 
in the East had absorbed all the faculties of the human 
mind, in the West continual and sanguinary wars had left 
but little leisure for the cultivation of science and letters. 

8. The Eighth Century. — The empire of the Ca'liphs con- 
tinued to spread, and by the beginning of this century it 
extended from Canton, in China, to the southern extremity 
of Spain. The Emperors of Constantinople, during this 
period, without attending to the disorders of the state, 
labored industriously either to enforce some erroneous doc- 
trine regarding faith, or more laudably to restore tranquillity 
to the Church. Philip'picus was scarcely seated on the 
throne when he turned his whole attention towards the estab- 
lishment of Mon'otheism. Leo, the Isau'rian, and Constan- 
tine, his successor, were equally industrious in prohibiting 
the veneration paid to sacred images in the churches, while 
the Empress Irene zealously labored to reestablish it. The 
edicts of Leo against sacred images caused not only com- 
motion in the East, but also produced insurrections in Italy, 
which the Lombards turned to their own advantage. 

9. Under their king, Astol'phus, they possessed them- 
selves of the exarchate of Raven'na, which, until this period, 
had remained under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, 
and subsequently undertook the conquest of Rome. When 
the imperial city was reduced to the last extremit}^. Pope 
Zach'ary applied for aid to Pep'in, the son of Charles Mar- 
tel'. That hardy and enterprising prince readily responded 
to the call, hastened to Italy, delivered Rome and its terri- 
tories from the power of the Lombards ; and with a noble 
generosity bestowed the territory thus acquired by his arms 
on the Sovereign Pontiff, and raised the head of the Chris- 
tian Church to the rank of a temporal ruler. 

10. Literature, at the early part of this century, was still 
in the utmost depression; but the flame which had been 

Of Spain? What is said of the state of literature '^—8. What is said 
of the empire of the caliphs ? Of the emperors of Constantinople ? Oi 
Philippicus? Of Leo? — 9. To whom did Pope Zachary apply for aid ? 
What did Pepin do ?— 10. What is said of literature at the early part 
of this century? 
13* 



150 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

almost extinguished began once more to revive in the East. 
At the birth of Mahometanism, the Mussulmen declared war 
indiscriminately against all who refused to embrace their 
superstitions, and death was the usual portion of the van- 
quished. But after the first transports of their enthusiasm 
had subsided, they mitigated the cruelty of this impolitic 
measure, and for fear of changing their conquered territories 
into one vast wilderness of desolation, they granted a kind 
of toleration of all religions, with the exception of gross 
idolatry. This indulgence caused many who had not lost 
all taste for the arts and sciences to settle in the dominion 
of the Caliphs, During the reign of Oramiades and his im- 
mediate successor, Almanzor, every encouragement was given 
to letters and learned men. 

Thus, w^hile the Emperors of Constantinople were wholly 
employed in compelling their subjects to adopt their own 
respective innovations in religion, the Saracen Caliphs were 
endeavoring to diflFuse a taste for science throughout their 
dominions. 

11. In France the arts and sciences, which had taken 
refuge in the monasteries, were, during the early part of 
this century, banished from these sacred asylums. The con- 
tinued hostilities in which the country was involved filled 
every place with tumult and devastation. Ecclesiastical 
property was distributed among favorite chieftains, who, 
instead of providing for the subsistence of a competent num- 
ber of clergy to serve the churches, filled the monasteries 
with their soldiery ; and the monks and clergymen, thus 
compelled to live with the military, gradually imbibed their 
spirit. Ignorance and vice, as a natural consequence, became 
almost general, not only in France, but also throughout the 
continent of Europe, towards the middle of this century. 
Ireland and England w^ere almost exclusively the seats of 
learning during this period. 

12. Fortunately for the cause of literature, Charlemagn'e 
at this time was called to fill the throne of France. This 
illustrious prince formed the noble design of removing the 
barriers which prevented the diffusion of knowledge, and of 
furnishing his subjects with the means of instruction. He 
established schools in all the principal cities and towns, 

What did the Mussulmen declare? After the first transports, what did 
they mitigate ? What did this indulgence cause? — 11. In France, what 
is said of the arts, etc. ? What is said of the monks and clerical men ? 
Of ignorance and vice? Of Ireland, etc.?— 12. Who was called to the 
throne of France ? What is said of this prince ? W^hat did he establish ? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 151 

throughout his vast dominions, for the gratuitous education 
of children and the ignorant ; he exhorted the bishops and 
abbots again to establish schools and universities in their 
respective cathedrals and abbe3^s, for the laudable purpose 
of teaching the liberal arts and sciences ; and invited into 
France the most celebrated schojars of the age ; such as 
Al'cuin, of York, Clement, and others, who were employed 
with considerable success in the literary regeneration of 
Europe. 

13. The Ninth Century. — The Saracen Caliphs continued 
to patronize learning, particularly the science of astronomy. 
This produced a great number of proficients in that beautiful 
and eminently useful branch of knowledge. Many also ap- 
plied themselves to the study of judicial astrology, while 
others distinguished themselves in various other departments 
of literature. On the contrary, under the Greek Emperors, 
the liberal arts were much neglected and despised. Leo, the 
Isaurian, had destroyed everything favorable to literature, 
and learned men were consigned to oblivion and contempt. 

14. Towards the middle of this century, however, we find 
a taste for literature manifest itself again among the Greeks. 
It was owing to the efforts of Am on, the Saracen Caliph, to 
attract Leo, the Philosopher, to his court, that the Emperor 
Theoph'ilus discovered the treasure he possessed in that 
great man. He encouraged his labors, and intrusted him 
with the charge of the public instruction. Bardes, who gov- 
erned under the Emperor Michael, undertook, with the aid 
of Pho'tius, to revive learning in the Eastern Empire by 
establishing professors of the various sciences and polite 
arts, and attaching to their functions honorary privileges 
and pecuniary compensations. 

15. In the West, sacred and profane learning continued to 
flourish in the numerous schools established by Charlemagne, 
until the dreadful disorders of succeeding reigns partially 
banished the light of science from the kingdom. After the 
death of that illustrious monarch, his vast dominions were 
inherited by Louis the Mild, who divided them between his 
three sons, who seem to have inherited none of the noble 
qualities of their father. They were continually engaged in 
hostilities with each other, while their kingdoms w^ere rent 

AVhat is said of Alcuin, etc. ?— 13. What is said of the Caliphs? Of 
the liberal arts under the Greek Emperors? — 14, Towards the middle 
of this century, what do Ave find? What did Bardes undertake? — 15. 
In the West, what is said of learning ? In what were t*hey continually 
engaged ? 



152 THE MIDDLE AGES, 

with civil discords, and their provinces were inundated on 
every side by the irruption of the Danes, Nor'mans, and 
Sar'acens. 

16. Amidst the evils that ensued, we are not surprised 
that ignorance again prevailed, particularly among the no- 
bles, who, following exclusively the profession of arms, had 
but little time to attend to literary pursuits, and even boasted 
of their want of knowledge. Hence we find that many of 
the deeds and legal documents of this period terminated in 
the following words: ''And the aforesaid lord has declared 
that he did not know how^ to sign his name, owing to his 
being a nobleman." But while literature was neglected on 
the part of the nobility, the most strenuous efforts were 
made to keep alive the sacred flame of science, and to diffuse 
instruction among the people, by the clergy and prelates of 
the Church. By a reference to the decrees of the Councils, 
during this period, it will be seen that the Bishops were un- 
remitting in their zeal for the extension of knowledge. In 
the Council of Toul, held in 859, princes and bishops are 
earnestly recommended to establish public schools, for the 
purpose of teaching sacred science and polite literature. In 
all the monasteries and episcopal houses, schools were estab- 
lished, in which a relish for study and literary acquirements 
was carefully preserved. Besides the study of the Sacred 
Scriptures, the students in these institutions were taught 
w^hat was termed the seven liberal arts ; namely, gram- 
mar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and 
music. 

1*7. In England the incursions of the Danes and the rav- 
ages of civil war had erased almost every monument of art, 
and banished from the land every trace of learning. The 
monasteries were burned, the monks murdered or dispersed, 
the libraries and schools destroyed. Ignorance and vice nec- 
ervsarily followed. Happily for the island, at this moment 
of its greatest depression, Alfred the Great w^as called to the 
throne. Having delivered his country from the dominion 
of the Danes, and driven the barbarous invaders from his 
shores, he turned his whole attention towards repairing the 
evils which their ravages had caused. 

16. Amidst the evils that ensued, what is said? How were many of 
the documents of this period written? By whom were the most strenu- 
ous efforts made ? In the Council of Toul, Avhat was recommended ? 
In the monasteries, what were established ? What were the students 
taught ? — 17. In England, what had the incursions of the Danes erased? 
Who was called to the throne ? To what did he turn hi& attention ? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 153 

18. To effect this object he established throughout his 
dominions schools, in which were taught all the useful 
branches. He founded the University of Oxford, invited 
from foreign countries men eminent for their learning, en- 
couraged architecture, and laid the foundation of the British 
navy, which for so many centuries after ruled the empire of 
the sea. To this illustrious Catholic prince, England is in- 
debted for many of the valuable laws which at present form 
the fairest feature in her constitution. 

Although this age was not productive of many eminent 
scholars, still it has left behind it a few names that would do 
honor to literature even at this day. Lu'pus, Abbot of Fer- 
rieres, a writer of this century, is admitted b}^ all impartial 
critics to have been a man of profound erudition, and few 
ages can boast of a more distinguished scholar than Alfred 
the Great, of England. 

19. The Tenth Century. — The Greek Empire, during this 
age, was distracted by a sei'ies of revolts and unnatural con- 
spiracies. The Emperor, Romanus, was dethroned by his 
son Constantino. Constantine, in his turn, was deprived 
of his crown and life by his own ungrateful son, who, at the 
instigation of his wife, administered a cup of poison to his 
royal father. The parricide did not long enjoy the fruits of 
his impiety. The army declared their General, Niceph'orus, 
Emperor, who, after a short reign, was carried off by the 
hand of conspiracy, in order to make room for Zimis'ces. 
This last emperor fell a victim to the treachery of his chief 
minister, Bas'il, who, dreading the punishment which his 
crimes had merited, contrived the death of his sovereign. 

20. During these revolutions of the state literature was 
not entirely neglected ; some of the Emperors gave consid- 
erable encouragement to science, and invited from other 
countries men of talents to teach at Constantinople. We 
do not, however, find that the Greek Empire, during the 
tenth century, produced any distinguished Avriters. Learn- 
ing was still patronized by the Saracen Caliphs and by the 
Sultans, who had usurped a great part of their authority. 
Many of their learned men were employed in translating 
into the Ar'abic tongue the writings of the ancient philoso- 
phers, while others applied themselves with much diligence 

18. To effect this object, what did he do? Who was a writer of this 
age? — 19. What is said of the Greek Empire during this age? Of Eo- 
manus ? — 20. During these revolutions, what was the state of literature ? 
By whom was learning still patronized ? In what were their learned 
men employed ? 



154 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

to the study of the translations already set forth in the pre- 
ceding age. 

21. Italy, during this century, was greatly distracted by 
civil dissensions, and finally reunited to the Germanic Em- 
pire by Otho I. France was exposed to the incursions of the 
Normans, in whose favor Charles the Simple ceded a part of 
Neus'tria, which from them was called Normandy. Tumult 
and disorder continued to convulse the state until Hugh Cap'et 
was raised to the throne. The Feudal System, during this 
period, had risen to its greatest power. During the preceding 
century the vassals of the crown had been gradually increas- 
ing in power, so that at the present period we find them pos- 
sessed of almost unlimited authority. Each nobleman had 
his fortress and his castle, situated on some commanding 
eminence which overlooked the surrounding countr}". Here, 
secure from violence, he oppressed the people, laid all travel- 
lers and merchants under contributions, and imposed upon 
them arbitrary tolls by way of tribute, and not unfrequently 
set at defiance the authority of his sovereign. 

22. In Germany the same state of things prevailed. The 
nobles were continually in arms against each other or at war 
wdth the sovereign. Nor was England more favored than 
the nations on the continent ; it was either harassed by new 
incursions of the Danes or implicated in domestic feuds. The 
monasteries during these evil times were almost the only 
asylums of learning. Here, in the silence of the cloister, 
aloof from the turmoil of the camp, the peaceful monks con- 
tinued to cultivate a taste for science and classical literature. 
This century produced several men eminent for their talents ; 
among these St. Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne, and St. Dun'- 
stan, in England, were particularly distinguished. 

23. The Eleventh Century. — In the Eastern Empire, dur- 
ing the greater part of this century, treachery, poison, and 
parricide were the usual means employed in the advancement 
or deposition of an Emperor. Hence we may easily form an 
idea of the disorders of the government and the deplorable 
condition of the people, who were, moreover, daily exposed 
to the incursions of the Bulgarians, Saracens, and Turks. 
The arts and sciences were wholly neglected until towards 
the middle of the century, when the study of letters began 

21. What is said of Italy? Of France? Of the Feudal System? 
What had each nobleman ? What did he do ? — 22. In Germany Avhat 
prevailed? What is said of England? Of the monasteries during 
these times ? What did this century produce ? — 23. What is said of 
the Eastern Empire during this century ? Of the arts, etc. ? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 155 

again to revive. Grammar and philosophy, however, were 
cultivated with much care. 

24. Literature continued to meet with patronage among 
the Saracens, who, after subjecting Persia, Syria, and Pales- 
tine, granted protection to learned men and founded several 
academies. The extraordinary power exercised by the Sov- 
ereign Pontiffs, even over temporal princes, during this and 
several succeeding centuries, is no doubt a matter of surprise 
to the reader at the present day. Of this subject I will speak 
more at large under the head of Italy ; suffice it to say, at 
present, that this power, invested in the Pope, although it 
may appear derogatory to the rights of princes, had, never- 
theless, a salutary influence in correcting the abuses of the 
times and of restraining the lawless passions of sovereigns. 
Fewer acts of violence were committed, the churches and 
monasteries were more respected, order and discipline better 
observed ; the sciences were cultivated in peace ; public acad- 
emies were opened for all who wished to improve ; the schools 
were crowded with students full of noble emulation, which 

^diffused itself through all ranks and conditions of life. 

25. During the eleventh century the method of Alcuin 
was adopted in the schools under the name of Triv'ium and 
Quadriv'ium. The Trivium included grammar, logic, and 
dialectics, while arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music 
constituted the Quadriviiim. But as the number of scholars 
multiplied, the works of Aristot'le and Av'iyen'na, with the 
categories attributed to St. Augustine, were very generally 
studied in the West. The most remarkable event towards 
the close of this century was the commencement of the 
Crusades, or sacred wars undertaken for the recovery of 
Palestine from the dominion of the Turks, a. d. 1096. This 
century, with the latter part of the preceding, was distin- 
guished for several important and useful inventions.* 

26. The Twelfth Century. — At the commencement of this 
century anarchy and confusion reigned in the East. The new 
states which the Christians had established in Palestine were 

* See Chronological Table. 

What is said of grammar ? — 24. Where did literature still meet with 
patronage? What will no doubt be a subject of surprise? What is 
observed of this power? What is said of the sciences? Of public acad- 
emies ? — 25. During the eleventh century, what method was adopted in 
the schools? What did the Trivium include? What constituted the 
Quadrixmim ? As the number of scholars multiplied, what was studied 
in the West ? What was the most remarkable event of this century ? — 
26. At the commencement of this century, what reigned in the East ? 



156 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

subjects of continual war ; the Sultans were constantly in 
the field, to arrest the progress of the Crusaders. The Em- 
perors of Constantinople, unable to repel the invasion of 
the Saracens, and jealous of the success of the Crusaders, 
tampered with both, without being able to take advantage 
either of their victories or defeats. 

The state of literature, notwithstanding the unfavorable 
aspect of things, was gradually improving. In the midst 
of the confusion of war, the Caliphs and Sultans, being gener- 
ally men of learning, paid much attention to the advancement 
of science. The schools and academies estabUshed through- 
out the Mussulman Empire were highly flourishing. 

2t. The Greeks were somewhat improved from their fre- 
quent intercourse with the Saracens. The emulation which 
had been excited in the West during the preceding century, 
the patronage of princes, combined with the propagation of 
the Religious Orders of Citeaux, Cluni, and the Carthusians, 
greatly multiplied the number of schools and academies. 
Every abbey and almost every monastery was an institu- 
tion for the diffusion of literary and religious knowledge^ 
The art of writing was cultivated with greater application 
and success during this than at any former period ; and the 
manuscripts which have descended to the present time are 
standing monuments of the exquisite perfection to which that 
art was carried during the twelfth and following centuries. 
The University of Padua and that of Paris were founded 
about the year 1180. The writers of this age most deserving 
of notice are the great St. Bernard, Peter, Abbot of Cluni, 
Peter of Blois, and Pope Innocent III. 

28. The Thirteenth Century.— The East, at the beginning 
of this century, was occupied by the Mo'guls, Saracens, and 
Turks, among whom an almost uninterrupted series of wars 
continued to rage. Genghis-Khan and his successors reduced 
a considerable portion of the Saracen and Turkish Empires ; 
while the princes of the West took Constantinople, and estab- 
lished there a Latin Emperor, whose successors swayed the 
Greek sceptre until the middle of this age. The Greek Em- 
perors, after their restoration, were continually harassed by 
the Turks, who finally reduced a considerable portion of the 
Grecian provinces. 

What is said of the Sultans ? Of the Emperors of Constantinople ? 
Of the state of literature? Of schools, etc.?— 27. What is said of the 
Greeks? What did the emulation, etc., do? What is said of the art of 
writing ? What universities were founded ? Who were writers of this 
age?— 28. What is said of the East ? What did tlie princes of the West do? 



THE MIDDLE AGES. 157 

29. In the West, Germany was convulsed by the factions 
of competitors for the empire. Otho was at length acknowl- 
edged by the people, and crowned by Pope Innocent III., 
after a solemn promise to protect the patrimony of the Pon- 
tiif. The Emperor, however, on account of some disagree- 
ment with the Romans, proceeded to avenge himself by in- 
vading and ravaging the territories of the Church. Upon this 
he was deposed by a Council assembled by the Pope, while 
the princes of Germany elected Frederick II. in his place. 
Otho was not disposed to yield without a contest, and thus 
involved the empire in all the horrors of civil war. Frederick 
was finally successful ; and the death of his rival left him in 
quiet possession of the throne. 

30. France was either involved in hostilities with England, 
or engaged in a calamitous warfare with the Albigen'ses, who 
had desolated her southern provinces. Consequently, the 
West was still the theatre of discord and civil dissension. 
Science was still patronized by the Moguls, and learning 
continued to flourish throughout their vast empire ; while, 
on the other hand, the conquests of the Turks had greatly 
tended to retard it within the limits of their jurisdiction. 
Some few men of learning flourished among the Greeks, but 
most of their eff'orts were made in vain attempts to justify 
their schism, and to refute the writings of the Latin theo- 
logians. In the West, science, which had been hitherto chiefly 
confined to the abbeys and monasteries, now burst forth from 
its confinement, and enlightened by its rays the whole face 
of Europe. The great Universities of Naples, Vienna, Sala- 
manca, Cambridge, and Lisbon, institutions of which Europe 
is proud at the present day, were founded during this cen- 
tury. Among the scholars of this age the following were 
the most distinguished : Roger Bacon, an eminent English 
monk and philosopher ; Matthew Paris, an accurate English 
historian, also distinguished as an orator and a poet; the 
names of Alber'tus Mag'nus, St. Bonaventure, and St. 
Thomas Aqui'nas stand preeminent as writers on philosophy 
and theology.* 

31. The Fourteenth Century. — The fourteenth century be- 

* See Biography of Eminent Personages, at the close of this volume, for 
sketches of Si. Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, and Alhertus Magnus. 

29. In the West, what was Germany ? Wiiat did the emperor do ? 
What was done by the council ? What was the result of the civil war ? 
— 30. What is said of France? What is said of science in the West? 
What universities were founded? Who were the most distinguished 
scholai-s of this age? — 31. What did this century behold? 
14 



158 THE MIDDLE AGES. 

held the rise and progress of the savage and warlike nation 
of Ottomans, who were destined, at a future period, to de- 
stroy the last vestige of Roman power. Hitherto the con- 
quest of the Turks had been confined to Asia, but under 
their celebrated chief, Or'can, they crossed the straits of 
Constantinople, and carried their victorious arms into the 
plains of Europe ; they took several important towns, and 
finally made the city of Adriano'ple the seat of their empire. 
The Greek Emperors, alarmed at the progress of the Turks, 
and feeling sensibly the want of supjiort from the West, used 
the most strenuous efforts to effect the reunion of the Greek 
with the Latin Church ; but the long-settled prejudice of their 
subjects placed an insuperable barrier to all their endeavors. 

32. Notwithstanding the distracted state of Christendom 
during the greater part of this century, occasioned by wars 
between England and France, Germany and Italy, and the 
great schism of the West, science continued to advance and 
to gain a liberal support in every part of Europe. 

Such is a concise view of the condition of society and the 
state of literature during that period denominated the Middle 

33. A few of the most remarkable institutions which char- 
acterize the history of Europe and the state of society during 
the Middle Ages were the Feudal System, Chivalry, the 
Crusades, and Monastic Establishments. We shall speak of 
the first three under their proper heads. As centres of piety 
and learning, the monasteries were a blessing to the society 
of the Middle Ages. 

34. In these excellent institutions, particularly the larger 
monasteries and abbeys, schools of instruction were estab- 
lished, in which a taste for the classics and the more useful 
branches of study were carefully preserved. In all, the monks 
had their various duties assigned them. While numbers were 
employed in transcribing books for the use of the Church and 
schools, others were engaged in teaching in the academies at- 
tached to these institutions, while others again were occupied 
in manual labor, in attending to the duties of the farm, the 
garden, and the like, having at the same time certain hours 

* For a fuller account of the Middle Ages, see Father Gazeau's 
History of the Middle Ages. 

What is said of the conquests of the Turks ? Of the Greek emperors ? 
— 82. What is said of literature durino^ this century? — 33. Wliat are 
some of the most remarkable institutions, etc. ? Which deserve a ])ass- 
ing notice? Wliat are they admitted? — 34. In these institutions what 
were established? What were the duties of the monks? 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 169 

set apart for devotional exercises. Even at meals, one of 
the monks read aloud while the others were silently eating):, 

35. Previous to the discovery of the art of printing-, books 
were extremely scarce, and only procured at an immense 
price ; this circumstance, of course, tended materially to re- 
tard the progress of science. The labor of transcribing a work 
was great, and the process tedious, hence the multiplication 
of books was extremely slow. The monasteries, however, 
supplied in some measure this deficiency, always employing 
a number of their inmates in the laudable work of transcrib- 
ing books. The good monks not only transcribed such books as 
were immediately used in the Church and schools, but also care- 
fully transcribed and preserved the writings of ancient authors; 
hence, whatever we have of ancient literature, has been chiefly 
transmitted to us through the medium of the moyiaderies. 

36. The monks, in truth, were the teachers, the mission- 
aries, the printers and publishers, and the real civilizers of 
the Middle Ages. They converted the rude, warlike barbarian, 
and gradually moulded him into a Christian. They were the 
fathers of the poor. They were the guardians of knowledge, 
and taught Christian Europe how to read. From the hands 
of a monk England received its first book and its first library. 
In short, during the early and middle ages we look to the 
monastery for nearly all that was greatest in virtue and 
learning. Who can mention the names of St, Benedict, 
St. Columbkille, St. Gregory the Great, St. Augustine, 
St. Bede, St. Anselm, St. Bernard, and St. Thomas 
Aquinas without feelings of grateful veneration ? 



CHAPTER II. 

SARACEN EMPIRE. 

THE RISE OF MAHOMETAN ISM, SARACEN CONQUESTS, ETC. 

rpiIE Saracens were a people who inhabited the north- 
JL western part of Arabia. Like the other tribes of the 
country, they traced their descent from Ishmael, and pro- 

85. Previous to the discovery of printing, what were scarce? What 
did 1 lie monasteries supply? What l)ooks did the monks transcribe? 
— 8G. What is said of the monks as teachers and civilizers? 

Chapter II. — 1. Who were the Saracens? 



160 SARACEN EMPIRE. 

fessed a mixed religion, made up of Judaism and idolatry. 
They had but little intercourse with the neighboring nations, 
except when they occasionally sold their services, as mer- 
cenaries, to those who paid them the most liberal reward, 
and were usually noted for their courage and bravery. Many 
of the Christian sects, in order to avoid persecution, had 
taken refuge in Arabia, and towards the end of the sixth 
century Christianity prevailed in some parts of the country. 

2. Such was the state of Arabia when Mahom'et or Mo- 
ham' med, the famous impostor, appeared. He was a native 
of Mec'ca, and was born about the year 5t0. At the age of 
forty he assumed the quality of a prophet, and pretended 
that he had received a divine commission to restore the Jew- 
ish and Christian religions, which, he maintained, had greatly 
fallen from their primitive purity. Upon this foundation he 
established his system of religion, which consisted of a com- 
pound of Judaism, Christianity, and of his own fanciful 
notions. Being subject to fits of epilepsy, he falsely attrib- 
uted them to the visits of the Archangel Gabriel, by whom 
he pretended he was taught, but whose presence he said he 
was unable to bear without trances and convulsions. 

3. As Mahomet was a man of no education, even unable 
to read or write, the Ko^-an, or Alcoran, the book which con- 
tains the principles of his doctrine, was compiled with the 
assistance of a Jewish Rab'bi and a Nesto'rian monk. The 
Koran consists chiefly of some beautiful sentences taken from 
Holy Writ, Vvith a strange medley of the most absurd ideas, 
without connection or design, though expressed in a lofty 
and animated style. The two leading principles of his re- 
ligion were : " There is but one God, and Mahomet is his 
prophet." He taught that others, at various times, such as 
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, had been divinely com- 
missioned to teach mankind, but that he himself was the last 
and the greatest of the prophets. 

4. He propagated his religion by the sword, and stimulated 
the courage of his followers by the promise of a martyr's 
crown in a paradise of delights, to every one who should fall 
in battle. It was inculcated as a fundamental doctrine that, 

What had they? What is said of the Christian sects? — 2. When 
and where was Mahomet born ? What did he pretend ? Being subject 
to fits, to what did he attribute them? — 3. How was the Koran com- 
piled? Of what does the Koran chiefly consist? What were the two 
leading principles of his religion ? What did he teach ? — 4. How did 
he propagate his religion? What was inculcated as a fundamental 
principle ? 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 161 

"to fight for the faith was an act of obedience to God," 
Hence the Mahometans styled their fierce and bloody ravages 
Sacred Wars. They termed their religion Islam or Islamism, 
and called themselves Mussulmans or Moslems, that is, true 
believers. 

Mahomet, at the commencement of his efi*orts, had but 
little success in making proselytes. His first converts were 
his wife Kadija, his slave Zeid, his father-in-law A'bubeker, 
and his cousin, the famous Ali. These, with ten others, were 
all whom he had persuaded to acknowledge the truth of his 
mission at the expiration of three years. 

5. A popular tumult being raised against him at Mecca, 
he was obliged to retire in order to save his life. He fled, 
in disguise, to Medina. This event, called the Hegi'ra, or 
the Flight, forms the Mahometan era, corresponding to a. d. 
622. He was received at Medi'na in triumph, and there as- 
sumed the sacerdotal and regal office. Shortly after this he 
placed himself at the head of an army of his followers, and 
commenced to propagate his religion, according to his maxim, 
by the sword. He first attacked the caravans which passed 
through Arabia, for the purpose of trade, and thus enriched 
his soldiers with the booty. Encouraged by this success, he 
took the city of Mecca, which he entered in triumph, about 
the year 629. From this period until his death he was con- 
stantly in the field. He fought in person nine battles, sub- 
dued all Arabia, extended his conquest to Syria, and after a 
career of victory, died at Medina, at the age of sixty-three, 
ten years after his flight from Mecca to that city. 

6. One of the principal causes of the success which at- 
tended the arms of Mahomet was the inflexible severity he 
exercised towards the vanquished. It was his usual practice 
to propose to those whom he threatened with war three con- 
ditions, namely, the adoption of his religious system, the 
payment of a tribute, or an appeal to the sword. If they 
chose the latter, no quarter was granted to them ; only the 
women, the children, and aged persons were spared, and re- 
duced to slavery. Another cause of his success was the 
absolute assurance of future bliss which he held out to his 

What were his ravages called? What did they term themselves? 
Who were his first converts ? — 5. What obliged him to retire? What 
is this event called ? How was he received at Medina? Shortly after 
this, what did he do? How many battles did he fight? Where and 
when did he die ? — 6. What was one of the causes of his success ? What 
were the three conditions he proposed to those whom he threatened 
with war ? What was another cause of his success ? 
14*' L 



162 SARACEN EMPIRE. 

followers, whereby they were rendered equally happy, either 
to conquer or to die on the field of battle for the propagation 
of their religion. 

7. Mahomet was succeeded by his father-in-law, A'bu- 
beker, a man of great repute among the Arabs. He is styled 
the first Caliph, a title which signifies in Arabic successor or 
vicar. He, pursuing a career of conquest similar to that of 
his predecessor, invaded Syria and took the cities of Bostra, 
Palmyra, and Damascus ; the latter city was taken after a 
siege of six months, and most of its inhabitants inhumanly 
put to the sword by order of Kaled, who was at that time 
the commander of the Saracen forces. Abubeker died in the 
third year of his reign and the sixty-third of his age, having 
previously named O'mar his successor. 

8. Omar, aided by the celebrated general, Obedi'ah, in the 
course of one campaign subdued Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopo- 
tamia, and Chaldea, and in a second reduced the whole of 
Persia. His army, under Am'rou, took the city of Alexan- 
dria and subdued Egypt. Amrou, being requested to spare 
the Alexandrian library, which at that time contained up- 
wards of five hundred thousand volumes, wrote to the Caliph 
for directions respecting the books. Omar answered, that if 
they agreed with the Koran they were useless, and if they 
difl"ered from it they were dangerous ; in either case they 
were to be destroyed. The books were, accordingly, dis- 
tributed throughout the city, and served, it is said, to warm 
the public baths for six months ! 

9. Omar, during a reign of ten years, reduced upwards of 
thirty thousand cities and villages to his dominion, and is 
said to have demolished four thousand Christian churches 
and to have erected fourteen hundred mosques for the Ma- 
hometan worship. He was finally assassinated at Medina in 
644, by a Persian slave, whose complaints against his mas- 
ter he had refused to hear. Oth'man was immediately chosen 
his successor, who added Bactriana and a part of Tartary to 
the dominion of the Caliphs. On his death Ali, the son-in- 
law of Mahomet, was chosen to succeed him. Ali is re- 
garded as one of the bravest and most virtuous of the 
Caliphs ; his reign was illustrious, although it lasted only 

7. By whom was Mahomet succeeded? What did he invade? — 
8. AVhat did Omar subdue? What city was taken? What number 
of vohmies was in the Alexandrian library ? What was Omar's answer 
respecting it? AVhat was done with the books ? — 9. During his reign, 
how many cities did he reduce ? How many churches did he demol- 
ish ? What was his end ? Who succeeded him ? 



SARACEN EMPIRE. 163 

five years. In the space of less than half a century the Sar- 
acen dominions were more extensive than what remained 
of the Roman empire ; and in one hundred years from the 
flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, the empire of his 
successors extended from India to the Atlantic, comprehend- 
ing Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, north of Af- 
rica, and Spain. 

10. During the reign of Ali a schism took place among 
the followers of Mahomet, w^hich continues to divide them to 
the present time. Abubeker, Omar, and Othman are re- 
garded as usurpers by the partisans of Ali, and are branded 
by the name of Shy'ites, or schismatics. On the other 
hand, these three Caliphs are held in the greatest veneration 
by the opponents of Ali, who style themselves Son'nites, 
because they follow the traditions of their Mahometan ances- 
tors, while the Shyites acknowledge the Koran only. The 
Persians are of the sect of Ali. The Turks are the Sonnites 
and Ottomans, or the disciples of Othman. Between the two 
parties a mutual hatred and animosity still exists. 

11. Ali removed the seat of the Mussulman empire from 
Mecca to Cufa, on the Euphrates, and during the year T68 
it was removed by Almanzor to Bagdad, which became the 
most illustrious caliphate in the history of the Saracens. 
Next to Bagdad the other most distinguished caliphate was 
that of Cordova, in Spain. Almanzor, who built the city of 
Bagdad and transferred to it the seat of the Saracen empire, 
was a liberal patron of learning and science, and the first 
Caliph who introduced the cultivation of them among the 
Saracens. The reign of Haroun'-al-Rasch'id, twenty-fifth 
Caliph, who was contemporary with Charlemagne, was the 
most illustrious in the whole dynasty, and is regarded as the 
Augustan age of Ar'ahic literature. This prince distin- 
guished himself by his valor and generosity, also by his 
equitable government and his patronage of learned men. 
Schools at this period were established in the principal towns. 
The sciences chiefly cultivated were medicine, geometry, and 
astronomy ; also poetry and works of fiction commanded some 
attention. 

12. From the time of the removal of the seat of govern- 
In less than half a century, what is said of the Saracen dominions ? — 

10. During the reign of Ali, what took place? Who are regarded as 
usurpers? Of what sect are the Persians? The Turks? — 11. What 
did Ali do? What is said of Almanzor? Of the reign of Kaschid? 
Of schools at this period? — 12. What is said of many of the interior 
provinces ? 



164 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

ment to Bagdad, the importance of Arabia began to decline. 
Many chiefs of the interior provinces asserted their inde- 
pendence, and only regarded the Caliph as the head of their 
religion. As the conquests of the Saracens extended, their 
states became disunited. Spain, Egypt, Morocco, and India 
had at an early period their separate sovereigns, who con- 
tinued to regard the Caliphs of Bagdad as the successors of 
the prophet, although they acknowledged in them no tem- 
poral jurisdiction. Thirty-seven Caliphs of the house of 
Abbas reigned in succession. For four hundred and ninety 
years, Bagdad continued to be the seat of the Saracen Em- 
pire, during which time it sustained several obstinate sieges, 
and was the seat of various revolutions. 

13. In the six hundred and fifty-sixth year of the Hegira, 
A. D. 1258, Bagdad was taken by HuFaku, the grandson of 
the celebrated Genghis Khan. Al Mostasem, the last of the 
Caliphs, was put to death, the Caliphate abolished, and the 
Saracen Empire terminated. The manner in which Al Mos- 
tasem was put to death was somewhat singular. He had 
been noted for his pride and ostentation ; when he appeared 
in public he usually wore a veil to conceal his face from the 
people, whom he considered as unworthy to look upon him. 
After the taking of the city, Hulaku, with the design of 
punishing his pride, ordered the wretched Caliph to be con- 
fined in a leather bag and to be dragged through the streets 
till he expired. At the present time the Saracens, once so 
powerful, possess little other territory than the deserts of 
Arabia, and are usually known by the name of Arabs. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 



THE Feud'al System had its origin among the Goths, 
Yan'dals, Lom'bards, and other barbarous nations that 
overrun the continent of Europe on the decline of the Roman 
Empire. It was adopted in France during the reign of 

What had Spain, etc., at an early period ? How long was Bagdad 
the capital?— 13. When and by whom was Bagdad taken? Relate the 
manner in Avhich Al Mostasem was put to death. At present, what is 
said of the Saracens? 

Chapter III.— 1. Where had the Feudal System its origin? When 
was it adopted in France ? 



THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 165 

Charlemagne, and is generally supposed to have been intro- 
duced into England by William the Conqueror. 

2. When the northern barbarians had overrun the Roman 
Empire, the conquered provinces were divided by lot among 
the different chieftains, without any other obligation existing 
between them than that of uniting their forces in case of 
war for their mutual defence. But the fundamental prin- 
ciples of the Feudal System were established in the following 
order : The king or chief, who led his respective tribes to 
conquest, retained for himself by far the largest share of the 
conquered territory, dividing the remaining portion of the 
land among his followers according to their rank, who bound 
themselves to render him merely military services. The 
example of the king was imitated by his nobles, who, under 
similar conditions, graated portions of their estates to their 
dependents. The grantor was called Lord, and those to 
whom the grant was made were styled Feudatories or 
Vassals. 

3. The feudal government, though well calculated for de- 
fence, was nevertheless very defective in its provisions for 
the internal order of society. The great barons or lords pos- 
sessed extensive tracts of country, erected on them fortified 
castles in places difficult of access, oppressed the people, 
slighted the civil authorities, and frequently set their sov- 
ereigns at defiance. 

4. A kingdom resembled a number of confederate states 
under one common head: the barons or lords acknowledging 
a species of allegiance to their sovereign, yet when obedience 
was refused, it could only be enforced by an appeal to arms. 
But the great mass of the people, who cultivated the land, 
were called serfs or villains, and lived in the most servile 
condition. They were not permitted to bear arms, nor suf- 
fered to leave the estates of their lords. As each of the 
feudal lords was independent within the limits of his own 
immediate possessions, and as the thread of unity existing 
between them was at all times feeble, it was natural to sup- 
pose that frequent disputes and sanguinary contests were 
the consequence. Such in reality was the case ; hence we 
find that Europe, during the existence of the Feudal System, 

When in England? — 2. In what order were the principles estab- 
lished? What was the grantor called ? And those to whom the grant 
was made ? — 3. What is said of the feudal government ? Of the great 
barons? — 4. What did a kingdom resemble? What is said of the 
people ? As each lord was independent, etc., what was natural to sup- 
pose? 



166 THE CRUSADES. 

exhibited an almost uninterrupted scene of anarchy, turbu- 
lence, and destructive warfare. 

5. Some of the causes assigned for the gradual decline of 
the Feudal System were the Crusades, the extension of 
commerce, the increase and distribution of wealth and knowl- 
edge, and, lastly, the change of warfare which followed the 
invention of gunpowder. It still exists in a partial degree 
in some parts of Europe, particularly in Russia, Poland, and 
in some portions of Germany. 



CHAPTER ly. 

THE CRUSADES. 



THE Crusades were military expeditions undertaken by 
the Catholics of Europe for the purpose of delivering 
the Holy Land, and particularly the Sepulchre of our Savior, 
from the oppressive dominion of the Turks. As early as the 
year 637, Jerusalem fell into the hands of the Saracens, who, 
for political reasons, permitted the Christians to visit the 
city. In 1065 the Seljukian Turks, a wild and ferocious 
tribe of Tartars, obtained possession of the Holy City ; from 
this period the Christian inhabitants were exposed to every 
species of outrage and insult. The Christians of Europe, 
actuated by motives of religion, were often induced to visit 
those places hallowed by the footsteps and sanctified by the 
sufferings of the Savior of man. But if, after travelling 
thousands of miles, amidst dangers and hardships, they 
reached Palestine, they were only allowed to enter the city 
of Jerusalem on the payment of a certain sum of money, 
and if they succeeded in gaining admittance they were ex- 
posed, like other Christian inhabitants, to all the rigors of 
Mahometan brutality. It is even stated by creditable his- 
torians, that some were loaded with chains and compelled 
to draw a cart or plough, while others were condemned to 
an ignominious death. 

5. What are some of the causes assigned for its decline ? Where does 
it exist in a partial degree ? 

Chapter IV. — 1. What were the Crusades? In the year 637, what 
took place? And in 1065? From this period what is said? What did 
the Christians of Europe do ? After travelling thousands of miles, what 
is said of them ? What is stated ? 



THE CRUSADES. 167 

2. Such was the condition of Palestine when Peter the 
Hermit, a famous priest and native of Amiens, in France, 
undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Moved at the sight 
of the cruel oppression which weighed upon the Christians 
of Asia, he prevailed upon Simon, the venerable Patriarch 
of Jerusalem, to write to the Pope and to the princes of 
Europe, for the purpose of soliciting their aid in arresting 
the cruelty of the Turks exercised against their Catholic 
brethren in the East, offering himself to be the bearer of these 
letters. The patriarch having assented to this measure, Peter 
immediately returned to Europe and presented himself before 
Pope Urban II. He was kindly received by the Pontiff, 
who readily entered into his views, and commissioned him 
to go forth and preach in favor of the suffering Christians in 
Palestine, and the deliverance of Jerusalem from the hands 
of the Infidels. 

3. Peter, who was eminently qualified for this important 
office, travelled through Italy, Prance, and other countries, 
and, by his pathetic and glowing eloquence, enkindled in the 
breasts of his hearers the same zeal that animated his own. 
Finally, the subject was brought before a council held at 
Placentia, and afterwards before the council at Clermont, in 
France, towards the close of the year 1095. After Peter had 
spoken on the subject of the holy war with his usual ardor, 
the Pope himself addressed the assembled bishops and princes 
in an eloquent and animated discourse, which he concluded 
in the following words : "Go now and take the sword of 
the Maccabees, protect the people of God and defend your 
persecuted brethren against the implacable enemies of the 
Christian name. Mussulman impiety has overspread the 
fairest regions of Asia. Ephesus, Nice, and Antioch have 
become Mahometan cities. The barbarous hordes of the 
Turks have planted their colors on the very shores of the 
Hellespont, whence they threaten war to all the states of 
Christendom. Unless you oppose a mighty barrier to their 
triumphant career, how can Europe be saved from invasion ? " 

4. At the conclusion of this discourse the whole assembly 
exclaimed, "It is the will of God;" and hastened to enrol 
their names for the sacred expedition. As a mark of their 

2. Who now undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ? Moved at the 
sight of the oppression what did Peter do ? How was he received by 
the pontiff? What commission did he receive? — 3. What is said of 
Peter? Where was the subject finally brought? After Peter had 
spoken, who addressed the assembly ? How did he conclude ? — 4. At 
the conclusion of the discourse what was said ? 



168 THE CRUSADES. 

engagement, it was proposed that a cross of red material 
should be worn on the right shoulder, and from this circum- 
stance the name of the Crusade is derived. Such were the 
views entertained by the first Crusaders, and such were the 
circumstances that called the Crusades into being. 

5. The First Crusade. — The enthusiasm which had mani- 
fested itself at the Council of Clermont was soon difi'used 
throughout every part of Christendom ; thousands from every 
part of Europe hastened to enlist under the banner of the 
cross. Domestic quarrels and private animosities were 
buried in oblivion. The sovereign and the noble, the prince 
and the peasant, animated alike with a kindred feeling, began 
to prepare for their departure to the East. 

6. Among the princes who engaged in the first Crusade, 
the following were the most conspicuous : Kaymond, Count 
of Toulouse ; Kobert, Duke of Is^ormandy, brother to the 
King of England; Hugh the Great, Count of Yermandoise, 
and brother to the King of France ; Robert, Earl of Flan- 
ders ; Godfrey of Bullion, Duke of Lorraine, and various 
persons of distinguished rank. Among these, Godfrey of 
Bullion, equally eminent for his amiable virtues and extraor- 
dinary valor, held the most prominent place, although it does 
not appear that he was invested with the chief command. 

7. Early in the spring of 1096, the army of the Crusaders, 
amounting, according to some authors, to more than seven 
hundred thousand persons, commenced their march towards 
the East, in two difi'erent directions. The first division of 
this vast multitude, under the command of Peter the Hermit, 
being destitute of that subordination and discipline so requi- 
site in large armies, met, in general, with a disastrous fate. 
Many of them were slain on their march through Hungary 
and Bulgaria, by the inhabitants, whose attacks they had 
provoked by the outrages they committed ; those who suc- 
ceeded in reaching Asia were met by sultan Sol'iman, on the 
plains of Nice, and almost entirely annihilated before they 
came in sight of Jerusalem. 

8. The second division, under the command of able and ex- 
perienced ofiicers, such as Godfrey and Baldwin, his brother, 
acted with more prudence, and arrived safely at Constanti- 

From what is the word Crusade derived ? — 5. What is said of the en- 
thusiasm of the Council of Clermont? Of domestic quarrels? Of the 
sovereigns? — 6. In the first Crusade, who were the most conspicuous 
princes? Who held the most prominent place? — 7. What was done 
early in the spring of 1096 ? What is said of the first division ? Where 
were many of them slain ? — 8. What is said of the second division ? 



THE CRUSADES, 169 

nople. The Greek emperor Alexis, alarmed at the multitude 
of warriors that surrounded his capital, lost no time in facili- 
tating their departure. He treated the leaders of the Cru- 
saders with every courtesy, and concluded a treaty with them, 
by which they agreed to conquer in his name, and restore 
those cities which had formerly belonged to his empire, on 
condition that he should aid them in the conquest of the 
Holy Land. He then gave orders that his vessels should be 
prepared without delay, to convey them across the Bos'phorus 
to the Asiatic coast. 

9. The Christian army, which amounted to about six hun- 
dred thousand infantry and one hundred thousand cavalry, 
commenced its march towards Nice, a city in Bithynia, to 
which they laid siege. Nice, reduced to the last extremity, 
was on the point of yielding to the Crusaders, when the 
Greek Emperor, by private embassies, prevailed on the in- 
habitants to surrender to him rather than to the Latins. 
This duplicity on the part of Alexis highly displeased the 
Crusaders, and from the little inclination manifested by the 
Greek monarch towards fulfilling his engagements, the Latin 
Lords thought themselves no longer bound by the treaty. 
After the reduction of Nice they proceeded eastward, con- 
quered Edessa, defeated an army of six hundred thousand 
Saracens near Durylseum, in Phrygia, took Antioch, where 
they were reduced to the utmost distress by famine, and 
finally advanced to Jerusalem, which they took after a siege 
of forty days. 

10. Dreadful was the scene that followed the first trans- 
ports of victory. The Crusaders, exasperated by their long 
suffering and by the obstinate resistance of the Saracens, 
and being probably afraid of new dangers, put to the^ sword 
nearly all the garrison and inhabitants of Jerusalem. The 
streets, the mosques, and citadel were all filled with blood. 
After this the attention of the princes was directed towards 
the defence of the recently conquered city. The heroic and 
generous Godfrey, Duke of Lorraine, who had abstained 
from all the carnage that followed the taking of the city, was 
chosen King by unanimous consent. He accepted the ap- 

Of the Greek emperor? How did he treat the leaders? What 
orders did he give? — 9. What was now the amount of the Christian 
army? When Nice was on the point of yielding, what did the Greek 
Emperor do ? What was the effect of this duplicity ? After the reduc- 
tion of Nice, where did they proceed, and what did they do? — 10. After 
"taking Jerusalem, wliat did the Crusaders do? After this, to what was 
their attention directed? Who was chosen King? 
15 



^ 170 THE CRUSADES. 

pointment with diffidence, but constantly refused the diadem 
and other insignia of royalty, saying that he could never con- 
sent to wear a crown of gold where the Savior of the world 
had worn a crown of thorns. 

11. Scarcely was he proclaimed King when the approach 
of an army of four hundred thousand Saracens threatened 
the destruction of the kingdom. With about twenty thou- 
sand followers the pious and intrepid Godfrey sallied forth to 
meet this powerful host. The two armies met on the plains 
of As^calon, and, notwithstanding the disparity of numbers, 
the Saracens suffered a ruinous defeat, and Godfrey returned 
in triumph to Jerusalem. 

12. The Crusaders, having divided Palestine and Syria 
into four states, and seeing the object of their expedition ac- 
complished, began to think of returning to Europe ; but as 
they withdrew their forces the Turks gradually recovered 
their power. Godfrey, after enjoying the regal dignity for 
the short space of one year, also returned to Europe, and was 
succeeded in the kingdom of Jerusalem by his brother, Bald- 
win I. 

13. After the death of Baldwin II., in 1130, jealousy and 
Violent dissensions began to prevail among the princes in the 
kingdom of Jerusalem, and from this period its prosperity 
began rapidly to decline. The Saracens, taking advantage 
of these disorders, renewed their attacks, took Edessa, and 
threatened the entire destruction of the Christian kingdom 
in the East. Surrounded by these calamities, the Christians 
of Palestine found themselves constrained to the necessity of 
soliciting aid from the princes of Europe. This circumstance 
gave rise to the second Crusade. 

14. The Second Crusade. — Immediately aft^r the arrival 
of the deputies who had been sent from Syria for the purpose 
of obtaining assistance from Europe, a second Crusade was 
preached, under the direction of Pope Eugenius III., by the 
celebrated St. Bernard, the learned and eloquent Abbot of 
Clair vaux, a. d. 1147. 

15. Louis YII., of France, and Conrad III., of Germany, 

What did he refuse, and what did he say? — 11. What threatened the 
destruction of the kingdom? What did Godfrey do? Where did the 
two armies meet, and what was the issue of the battle ? — 12. Of what 
did the Crusaders now begin to think ? What is said of Godfrey ? — 
13. After tlie death of Baldwin, what took place? What did the Sara- 
cens do ? What did the Christians find themselves constrained to do ? 
— 14. After the arrival of the deputies in Europe, what was done? — 
15. What princes assumed the cross ? 



THE CRUSADES. 171 

with three hundred thousand of their subjects, assumed the 
cross and began to prepare for an expedition to the East. 
Conrad, who proceeded in advance of the French monarch, 
was defeated by the Turks near Iconium, and Louis himself 
sufi'ered a signal overthrow near the city of Laodic'ea, in 
Phrygia, with the loss of the flower of his army. After 
these disasters the two monarchs succeeded in reaching 
Palestine, and, having arrived at Jerusalem, they summoned 
all the Latin princes of Asia to a council, where it was de- 
termined to abandon the design of reconquering Edessa, 
which had been the first object of the Crusade, and to make 
one united effort against Damascus. After their operations 
had been carried on for some time with every appearance of 
success, their designs were suddenly frustrated by a' violent 
disease that broke out in the Christian camp ; the siege was 
consequently abandoned. Louis and Conrad, disgusted at 
the conduct of the Latin princes in Asia, left them to their 
own wretched condition and took their departure for Europe. 
Thus terminated the second Crusade, with immense loss to 
the West, without having produced the slightest advantage 
to the Christians of the East. 

16. The famous Saladin, who, about the year 1174, had 
raised himself to the sovereignty of Egypt, Arabia, Syria, 
and Persia, formed the design of reconquering Palestine 
from the Christians. He defeated their army in the battle 
of Tiberias, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which was forced to 
surrender by capitulation, the Christian inhabitants being 
permitted to depart on the payment of a certain sum of 
money. Thus again the Holy City fell into the hands of 
the Saracens, eighty-eight years after it had been conquered 
by the first Crusaders, a. D. 1187. 

17. The Third Crusade. — When the intelligence of the 
fate of Jerusalem reached Europe, the deepest affliction per- 
vaded all ranks of the people. The venerable Pontiff, Urban 
III., was so affected at the news that he died of a broken 
heart. This, however, was soon succeeded by a desire to 
retrieve the loss sustained by the Christians in the East. 
The most illustrious monarchs reigning at that time in 
Europe, were Philip Augustus of France, Henry XL of Eng- 

What happened to Conrad ? Louis ? What broke out in the Chris- 
tian camp? What did Louis and Conrad finally do? — 16. What is said 
of Saladin? What did he defeat?^ How long had the Holy City re- 
mained in possession of the Christians? — 17. When this intelligence 
reached Europe, wliat is said ? Who were the most illustrious sover- 
eigns at this time in Europe ? 



172 THE CRUSADES. 

land, and Frederic I. of Germany. These three sovereigns, 
with the principal Lords of their respective dominions, as- 
sumed the cross, and began to make preparations to enter on 
a third Crusade. 

18. Frederic, at the head of an army of one hundred and 
fifty thousand men, was the first of the three monarchs that 
commenced his march towards the East. Victory and suc- 
cess attended his arms whenever he advanced, until an un- 
fortunate circumstance frustrated his brightest hopes. Hav- 
ing crossed into Asia Minor, and passed the defiles of Mount 
Tau'rus, the German monarch proceeded at the head of his 
army, along the banks of the Cydnus, in which he was ac- 
cidentally drowned while bathing in the river. In the inter- 
val Henry II. of England died, and .was succeeded by his 
son Richard, surnamed CoBur de Lion, or the Lion-hearted, 
on account of his extraordinary valor. To the adventurous 
and military spirit of Richard, the Crusades presented an 
irresistible attraction ; and, after making the necessary 
preparations, he joined Philip Augustus of France, and 
embarked on an expedition to the Holy Land. 

19. The two monarchs, in conjunction, took Ptolemais; 
but unhappily a misunderstanding between them prevented 
their further action in concert. In consequence of this, 
Philip, leaving a part of his forces in Palestine, returned 
to France, Richard having been left to the sole command, 
ably sustained the contest against the sultan Saladin, whom 
he signally defeated in the memorable battle near As'calon. 
The feats of arms displayed by Richard on this and other 
occasions more resemble the achievements of a hero of ro- 
mance than the deeds of a prince of authentic history. On 
one occasion it is related, that with one stroke of his sword 
he severed the head, right shoulder, and arm, from the body 
of a Saracen chief. On another, he threw himself with so 
much ardor into the thickest of the contest, that for some 
moments he disappeared amidst the host of his enemies ; 
when he returned, his horse was covered with blood, and so 
numerous were the darts and arrows, fastened in his shield 
and dress, that, according to an eye-witness, he resembled a 
cushion covered with needles. 

20. His army being at length reduced by famine and fa- 

What did they do?— 18. AVhat is said of Frederic? What was his 
end? What is said of Eichard? — 19. What is said of the two mon- 
archs? Being left to the sole command, what did Eichard do? What 
is said of his feats of arms? On one occasion, what is said of him? — 
20. What did he conclude? 



THE CRUSADES. 173 

tigue, the English monarch began to think of returning to 
Europe. Accordingly, having concluded a truce for three 
years and eight months with Saladin, on terms advanta- 
geous to the Christians, he took his departure for his own do- 
minions. The vessel in which he sailed being wrecked on the 
coast of the Adriatic sea, Richard resolved to pursue his 
course by land ; but as he passed through Germany with 
only a few attendants, he fell into the hands of the emperor 
Henry lY., by whom he was retained a prisoner until he was 
ransomed by his subjects, who paid for his release the sum 
of £300,000. He finally reached his own dominions after an 
absence of four years. 

Such was the result of the third Crusade. Although it 
did not terminate in the recovery of the holy city, still it led 
to the conquest of the island of Cyprus, and the surrender 
of Acre, a town of considerable importance to the Christians. 

21. The Fourth Crusade. — A fourth Crusade was under- 
taken about the year 1195, in which Henry lY., emperor of 
Germany, bore the most distinguished part ; but his death, 
which happened before he reached Palestine, and the unfor- 
nate quarrels among the other leaders, frustrated the lofty 
design of recovering the Holy Land. 

22. The Fifth Crusade. — About the close of the twelfth 
century, during the pontificate of Pope Innocent III., a fifth 
Crusade was undertaken by Boniface, Marquis of Montfer- 
rat, and Baldwin, Earl of Flanders. Having made the neces- 
sary preparations, they collected their forces at Zora, a city 
in Dalmatia, for the purpose of transporting them to Pales- 
tine by sea. But before their departure from this place, 
Alexius, the son of Isaac, the Greek emperor, arrived at the 
camp, bearing the intelligence that his father had lately been 
dethroned and inhumanly deprived of his sight, and was then 
in the hands of the usurper of his crown. At the same time 
he pledged himself, in the most solemn manner, to aid the 
Crusaders in the recovery of the Holy Land, to maintain 
during his life five hundred knights for its defence, and 
offered, moreover, the payment of a considerable sum of 
money, if they, on their part, would lend assistance in ex- 
pelling the usurper, and restoring his father to the throne. 

What is said of the vessel ? What happened to him as he passed 
through Germany? What was paid for his ransom? — 21. When was 
the fourth Crusade undertaken? Who bore a distinguished part? — 22. 
W^hen was the fifth Crusade undertaken? Where did they collect their 
forces? Before their departure, what took place? What did Alexius 
pledge himself to do ? 
15* 



174 THE CRUSADES. 

23. After some deliberation, the Crusaders accepted his 
proposals ; and sailing immediately from Zora, they directed 
their course to Constantinople, which they took after a siege 
of ten days. The usurper made his escape. The old empe- 
ror being released from prison and restored to his throne, im- 
mediately ratified the engagements made by his son to the 
Latins. But scarcely had the Crusaders departed on their 
march towards Palestine, when a sudden revolution in the 
city obliged them to return. The emperor and his son 
Alexius fell victims to the intrigues and perfidy of one of 
their courtiers, surnamed Murzuph'lis, who placed himself 
upon the throne. 

24. As soon as the news of this murder and usurpation 
reached the camp of the Crusaders, they resolved to avenge 
the death of the unfortunate princes, their allies and bene- 
factors. Marching back to Constantinople, they took the 
city after a furious assault, though it was defended by up- 
wards of two hundred thousand men, and contained a popu- 
lation of about one million of inhabitants. 

Having thus a second time, in the short space of a few 
months, conquered the great capital of the East, the Latins 
proceeded to elect an emperor from their own body. The 
choice fell upon Baldwin, Count of Flanders, who was ac- 
cordingly invested with the ensigns of royalty, and quietly 
ascended the imperial throne, a. d. 1204. 

25. Here terminated the efforts of the Crusaders ; satisfied 
with this splendid acquisition, they attempted nothing further 
against the Saracens. Such were the circumstances that led 
to the establishment of the Latin Empire at Constantinople. 
Few events on the page of history are more curious and 
interesting than this singular revolution. It was destined, 
however, to be of short duration ; after a precarious exist- 
ence of fifty-seven years it again fell under the dominion of 
the Greeks. 

26. The Sixth Crusade.— The last expedition having failed 
to accomplish the object for which it was designed, namely, 
the recover}^ of the Holy Land, a sixth Crusade was shortly 
afterwards undertaken. Among those who bore a distin- 

23. After some deliberation, what did the Crusaders do? What is 
said of the old emperor? What happened to the emperor and Alex- 
ius ? — 24. As soon as this news reached their camp, what did the Cru- 
saders do ? Having thus conquered the capital of the East, to what did 
they proceed ? On whom did the choice fall ? — 25. Satisfied, etc., Avhat 
did they attempt? How long did the empire last?— 26. What was 
shortly afterwards undertaken ? Who was the most distinguished ? 



THE CRUSADES. 175 

guished part in this expedition was John of Brienne, a 
French nobleman, who, at the head of one hundred thousand 
men, made a descent upon Egypt, with a design of destroy- 
ing- the power of the Sultan at the seat of his government. 
He took Damietta, but owing to subsequent disasters, par- 
ticularly the inundation of the Nile, he was finally com- 
pelled to abandon his conquests and to evacuate Egypt, 
A.D. 1221. 

27. About the same period the famous Frederick II., Em- 
peror of Germany, led an army into Palestine, and obtained 
by treaty from the Sultan the restoration of Jerusalem ; but 
so little precaution did he take to defend it, that it shortly 
fell again into the hands of the infidels. Palestine was after- 
wards visited by several other princes of Europe, without 
being able to effect little more than to conclude a treaty of 
peace. After the departure of Richard, Earl of Cornwall, 
brother to the King of England, a sudden irruption of fierce 
barbarians from Korazan laid waste the Holy Land, and left 
Palestine in the most deplorable condition. 

28. The Seventh and Eighth Crusades. — At this period, 
A. D. 1214, France was under the mild administration of St. 
Louis IX., a prince equally distinguished for his heroic for- 
titude and for all the more amiable virtues that adorn the 
Christian heart. The deplorable state of Palestine deeply 
afflicted his generous soul, and on the recovery from a 
dangerous illness he resolved to assume the cross, and by 
his exhortations induced many of his nobles to imitate his 
example. After four years' preparation he set out on the ex- 
pedition, accompanied by his heroic Queen, his three brothers, 
and all the knights of France. He began the enterprise by 
invading Egypt, and, after losing one-half of his numerous 
army by contagious diseases, he was defeated and taken 
prisoner by the Saracens. Having ransomed himself and 
his army, he proceeded to Palestine, where he remained for 
several years in endeavoring to secure the welfare of the 
Christian colonies, by repairing the fortifications of the 
towns which yet remained in their possession. The death 
of his mother, to whom he had intrusted the government 
during his absence, obliged him to return to France. 

29. About thirteen years after his return from his first 

What city did he take ? — 27. What did Frederick II. do and obtain ? 
After the departure of Richard, what took place? — 28. At this period, 
who reigned in France? What did he resolve? How did he be^in 
the enterprise? Having ransomed himself, where did he proceed? — 
29. When did he undertake a second Crusade ? 



176 THE CRUSADES. 

Crusade, Louis was induced to undertake a second. Having" 
provided for the government of his kingdom in his absence, 
he embarked with sixty thousand chosen troops, landed in 
Africa, and laid siege to Tunis. Before anything of im- 
portance could be effected, a raging pestilence carried off one- 
half of his flourishing army, the king himself being numbered 
among its victims. This terminated the last of the Crusades, 
A.D. 12Y2. 

30. The Results of the Crusades.— The period during 
which the Crusades continued has been styled by some his- 
torians, ''the heroic age of Christianity." No other military 
enterprise ever claimed thb attention of the Christian world 
so long and so universally as the Crusades. For nearly two 
centuries Catholic Europe continued to send forth her legions 
to conquer or die upon the plains of Asia. The two most 
powerful agents that can operate upon the human mind com- 
bined to call them into being ; namely, zeal for religion and 
sympathy for suffering humanity. 

31. To see the land of Palestine, so hallowed by all the 
associations dearest to the Christian heart, that land sancti- 
fied by the footsteps and watered by the tears and blood of 
the Son of God, that land where the'^first light of Christianity 
dawned, trodden down by the footsteps of infidelity ; to see 
that Calvary where died the Redeemer of man, that Sep- 
ulchre in which he was laid polluted and defiled by Mussul- 
man impiety, is even at this distant day capable of producing 
the deepest emotions. To deliver this land from the power 
of the infidels, who only held it by the right of conquest, 
was at that period deemed not only a lawful, but even a holy 
and sacred, duty. 

32. On the other hand, the cruelties exercised against the 
defenceless Christians of Palestine and the pilgrims, whom 
a religious zeal had drawn to the holy city, cried aloud to 
the princes of Europe for their interposition. The evils 
which marked the progress of the Crusades were similar to 
those that follow in the train of other great military enter- 
prises. It is computed that two millions of Europeans, 
during their continuance, were buried in the East. 

What was the fate of his army? Of the king himself? When did 
the Crusades terminate ?— 30. What has this period been styled ? What 
is said of the enterprise? What agents combined to call them into 
being? — 31. What is capable of producing the deepest emotion ? What 
was deemed a sacred duty? — 32. What cried aloud for the interpo- 
sition of the princes of Europe? How many were buried in the 
East? 



THE CRUSADES. 177 

33. The Crusades are justly regarded as masterpieces of 
policy, which not only secured the independence of Catholic 
Europe, but were otherwise beneficial to mankind. In the 
first place, they checked the alarming progress of the Sara- 
cens and Seljukian Turks, who were thus prevented from 
penetrating into the very heart of Christendom. Secondly, 
they greatly contributed towards the gradual decline of the 
Feudal System, which at that period prevailed throughout 
Europe. The great Barons who engaged in the Crusades 
were obliged to sell a portion of their lands in order to pro- 
cure the means of conveying their troops into a foreign 
country. By this means the aristocracy was weakened, 
wealth more widely diffused, and the lower orders of society 
began to acquire property, influence, and a spirit of inde- 
pendence. The sovereigns, in like manner, impelled by the 
same pecuniary necessity, sold to towns important privi- 
leges and immunities, such as the right of electing their own 
magistrates, and being governed by their own municipal 
laws, 

34. Thirdly, these expeditions had a most beneficial influ- 
ence on commerce and navigation. Previous to this period 
commerce had been carried on only in a very limited scale. 
The attention of the people of Europe had never been suffi- 
ciently drawn to the great advantages of water transports, until 
the disasters of the first Crusaders, in attempting to march 
their forces by land, impressed upon the minds of those who 
succeeded the expediency of conveying their troops by water. 
Hence, by the frequent voyages to Palestine, the arts of navi- 
gation and ship-building were rapidly improved, and from 
this period may be daled the great commercial prosperity 
and power of Venice and Genoa. Moreover, several new 
and valuable articles were imported from the East, which 
have since formed important branches of trade, such as the 
sugar-cane, with its various products, and silk, which began 
to be manufactured in Italy about the year 1209. 

35. Finally, the Crusades, although in some respects in- 
jurious to literature, were, nevertheless, ultimately beneficial 
to it. The frequent communication of the people of the 

33. How are the Crusades regarded? In the first place, what did 
they do ? In the second place ? What were the great barons obliged 
to do? By this means what was done? What is said of the sover- 
eigns ? — 34. Previous to this period what is said of commerce ? Of the 
attention of the people of Europe ? * From this period what may be 
dated? What is further observed? — 85. What was one of the most 
powerful helps towards the revival of learning ? 

M 



178 THE CRUSADES. 

West with Greece and Syria, which the Crusades necessarily- 
occasioned, was one of the most powerful helps towards the 
complete revival of learning. At the time when the Crusades 
were undertaken, owing to the almost uninterrupted series 
of hostilities, civil feuds, and sanguinary wars that had deso- 
lated the face of Europe, literature was, comparatively speak- 
ing, much neglected. In the East, however, particularly at 
Constantinople, learning and the arts were still cherished to 
some extent. The Crusaders, therefore, by their intercourse 
with a people more polished and enlightened than themselves, 
acquired a taste for the arts and sciences which they did not 
fail to improve on their return to Europe. 

36. Hence we find that the principal universities of Europe, 
even at the present day, were founded during the period of 
the Crusades, or immediately after. The University of 
Padua was founded in 1180, and that of Paris the same 
year ; that of Naples in 1230 ; that of Vienna in 1238 ; that 
of Salamanca in 1240; Cambridge in 1280; and that of 
Lisbon in 1290. 

3t. The Crusades are among the most colossal events in the 
annals of history. In them '' we see numberless nations 
arise, march across deserts, bury themselves in countries 
with which they are unacquainted, and expose themselves 
to all the rigors of seasons and climates. And for what pur- 
pose ? To deliver a Tomb I Grand and immortal movement, 
where hundreds of nations advance to certain death — not in 
pursuit of a miserable self-interest, not to find an abode in 
milder and more fertile countries, not from an ardent desire 
to obtain for themselves any earthly advantages — but inspired 
only by a religious idea, by a jealous desire to possess the 
Tomb of Him who expired on the Cross for the salvation of 
the human race. When compared with this, what becomes 
of the lofty deeds of the Greeks, chanted by Homer ? Greece 
rises to avenge an injured husband — Europe to redeem the 
sepulchre of Christ."* 

* For a fuller account of the Crusades, see Fredet's Modern History. 

At the time when the Crusades were undertaken, what is said of litera- 
ture ? What did they acquire ?— 36. Hence what do we find ? When 
were these universities founded ? — 37. How do the Crusades stand in 
history ? What do we see in them ? How do they compare with the 
deeds af the Greeks chanted by Homer ? 



CHIVALRY. 179 

CHAPTER V. 

CHIVALRY. 

OHIYALRY, or Knighthood, Avas a military institution 
prevalent in Europe during- the Middle Ages, and forms 
a remarkable feature in the history of that period. Nothing 
can be conceived more truly noble than the leading objects 
of Chivalry. It united in its institution a love of arms and 
military renown, an eagerness to support the weak, to pro- 
tect the oppressed, to avenge the wrongs of the widow and 
the orphan, to restrain the lawless and to refine the rude ; it 
blended with religion the highest sentiments of honor, and 
inculcated a devoted attachment and inviolable fidelity to 
the female sex ; in short, it combined in its component ele- 
ments, valor and honor, courtesy and religion. 

2. The early history of Chivalry is involved in obscurity ; 
the particular nations and the peculiar circumstances in which 
it had its origin are not precisely known ; still the leading 
principles by which it is distinguished may be found among 
the manners and customs of the Gothic nations, by whom 
the profession of arms was the only employment esteemed 
honorable, and who were remarkable for the delicate and re- 
spectful gallantry which they manifested towards the female 
sex. It was embodied into a form and regulated by certain 
laws under the Feudal System, and afterwards brought to 
maturity and gained the meridian of its splendor during the 
Crusades, when it assumed the aspect of a religious institu- 
tion. Chivalry prevailed in almost every part of Europe, 
but in France, Spain, and Germany it attained its greatest 
purity. In England its introduction was later and its pro- 
gress slower. 

3. There were three degrees of Chivalry, namely. Knights 
Ban'nerets, Knights, and Esquires. The first rank, to which 
peculiar privileges were allowed, could only be attained by 
those who had passed through the other two degrees. The 
second, and by far the most numerous class, consisted of 
Knights who were generally persons of noble birth, although 

Chapter V. — 1. What is Chivalry? What is said of it? What 
did it combine as its component elements ? — 2. What is said of its early 
history ? Where may its leading principles be found ? When was it 
embodied into a form? Where did it prevail? — 3. What were the 
three degrees ? What is said of the first rank? Of the second? 



180 CHIVALRY. 

it frequently became the reward of merit, and soldiers dis- 
tinguished for their valor were sometimes admitted into this 
class. The third class was the Squirehood, consisting of a 
body of efficient soldiers, inferior in rank to the knights, but 
superior to the common soldiery. 

4. Those who were destined for Chivalry were placed for 
education, at the age of seven years, in the castle of their 
father, or that of some neighboring noble, where they re- 
ceived the appellation of page or valet, until they arrived at 
the age of fourteen, when they obtained the title of Esquire, 
and were authorized to bear arms. They were kept in active 
employment in the castle, being obliged to wait upon the 
lord and his lady at home, and attend them abroad, and thus 
become accustomed to obedience and courteous demeanor. 
Surrounded by noble and virtuous ladies, and valiant knights, 
the first impressions made on their minds were those of vir- 
tue and love, honor and valor. From the ladies they learned 
the first rudiments of religion and love ; and in order that 
they might practise in some degree the lessons they received, 
it was customary for each youth to select some young, ac- 
complished, and virtuous lady as his patroness, before whom 
he might display all his gallantry, and whose duty it was to 
improve and polish his manners. 

5. The Esquires were employed in various offices in the 
castle until the age of twenty-one, which was the proper age 
for admitting them to all the honors of knighthood. The can- 
didate was required to prepare himself by rigid fasting, pass- 
ing the night in prayer, and by a solemn confession ; and as 
a type of the purity of the life and manners that would be 
required of him, he was clothed in white. Having performed 
these preliminary rites, he then entered the church, where an 
examination took place; and if judged worthy to be admit- 
ted into the order of knighthood, he received the Sacraments 
and took the oath, consisting of twenty-six articles, in which, 
among other things, he solemnly pledged himself to defend 
the Church, to respect the priesthood, to protect the ladies, 
and to redress the wTongs of the widow and the orphan. 

6. While 3^et on his knees, he received from the hands of 
the knights and the ladies the insignia of Chivalry — the spurs, 
cuirass, coat of mail, and other parts of his armor, and lastly, 

Of the third ? — 4. Where were those destined for Cliivalrv placed ? 
How were they kept ? By whom were they surrounded ? What was 
customary for each youth ? — 5. How were esquires employed ? How 
was the candidate required to prepare ? What did he solemnly pledge 
himself to do? — 6. While on his knees, what did he receive? 



CHIVALRY. 181 

his sword, which was previously blessed by the priest. The 
concluding ceremony was performed by one of the most dis- 
tinguished Chevaliers present, who bestowed on the young 
knight the accolad'e, which consisted in giving him a slight 
blow on the shoulder or cheek with his sword. 

7. The most important equipments of a knight were his 
horse and his lance; his other ofiensive arms were his sword, 
dagger, battle-axe, and mace. The endowments of an ac- 
complished Knight at the most flourishing period of Chivalry, 
were beauty, dexterity in dancing, riding, hunting, and tilt- 
ing ; while piety, chastity, modesty, courtesy, liberality, and 
sobriety, and, abol^e all, an inviolable attachment to truth and 
invincible courage, were regarded as his necessary virtues. 

8. The professed Knight possessed various privileges and 
dignities which were not confined to the territories of his 
own sovereign, but extended through a greater part of Europe. 
He could roam where he pleased in quest of adventures, and 
was at liberty to challenge all those of his Order he met to 
single combat. The laws of the institution made it the duty 
of every Knight to protect the chastity and honor of the 
ladies, and forbade him to speak disrespectful of them, or to 
suifer others to do so in his presence. It was moreover in- 
cumbent upon him to warn them against the commission of 
anything that might lower them in his opinion. Strictly 
decorous and respectful towards them himself, he expected that 
they would never forfeit their claim to his esteem. If, how- 
ever, a lady transgressed the laws of decorum or prudence, 
he did not fail to stigmatize her fault in the most pointed 
manner. If he passed the castle of one of this character, he 
marked it in some striking manner as the dwelling of a lady 
unworthy to receive a true chevalier. 

9. Chivalry enjoined, in a special manner, the three virtues 
of hospitality, humanity, and courtesy. Every loyal Knight 
was expected to have the door of his castle constantly open. 
As soon as one chevalier entered the castle of another, he 
considered himself at home, and was treated as if he were 
one of the family. Everything that could contribute to his 
comfort and his luxury was at his command. If he arrived 
wounded, every possible care was taken of him by the ladies, 

What was the concluding ceremony ? — 7. What were the equipments 
of a knight? What were his endowments? His virtues? — 8. What 
did the professed knight possess ? What did the rules of the institution 
oblige every knight to do ? If a lady transgressed the laws of decorum, 
what did he do?— 9. What did Chivalry enjoin ? — As soon as one Cheva- 
lier entered the castle of another, what did he consider? 
16 



182 CHIVALRY. 

who were proud of having in their possession the remedies 
proper for such occasions. To a vanquished foe the most 
scrupulous and delicate attention was paid ; he was treated 
rather as a conqueror than one who had been conquered. 

10. Tournaments and Jousts. — Tournaments were military 
exercises performed by two parties of cavaliers, with hurt- 
less weapons. No amusement was more patronized by the 
knights, or even sovereigns themselves, than these images 
of war, which were often celebrated with a splendor beyond 
description, particularly at coronations, royal marriages, and 
after important victories. If the occasion was solemn, it was 
announced at the courts of different sovereigns, who were 
invited to attend. Not only Knights, but even Kings and 
Princes, who valued themselves upon their valor and gal- 
lantry, frequently entered the list. 

11. At a tournament the place enclosed for the combatants 
was surrounded by sovereigns and other nobles, by Knights 
of distinguished fame, and by ladies of the highest rank, 
who were always appointed judges on these occasions — a 
privilege, however, which they seldom exercised, generally 
deputing their power to a knight, who on that account was 
called the Knight of Honor. When the Knights reached 
the lists their arms were examined by the constables, in order 
that only hurtless weapons might be used. But, notwith- 
standing this precaution, there existed, in many instances, a 
disposition to convert the tournament into a real battle, and 
thus much blood was often uselessly spilt. 

12. Nothing but the reality could exceed the performance 
of these hazardous and animating scenes. Frequently lances 
were broken, horses and Knights were overthrown, and some- 
times, though seldom, death ensued. While the tide of vic- 
tory flowed to either side of the lists, the air was rent with 
the acclamations of the ladies, the minstrels, and the whole 
assembled multitude, while the successful Knight was hailed 
with triumphal honors little inferior to those bestowed on a 
hero returning wreathed with the laurels of victory over a 
vanquished foe. The Catholic Church was justly hostile to 
tournaments, refusing the rite of Christian burial to those 
who fell on the tilting-ground. 

If he arrived wounded, what was done? — 10. What were tourna- 
ments ? What is said of them ? If the occasion was solemn, what was 
done? — 11. At a tournament, by whom was the place surrounded? 
Who was the Knight of Honor f When they reached the lists, what 
was done? — 12. What frequently took place? What is said of the 
Catholic Church ? 



CHIVALRY. 183 

13. Jousts were generally a combat between two Knights, 
and usually took place at the conclusion of the tournaments. 
A Knight who had acquired a distinguished fame would ride 
through the lists and call on the surrounding cavaliers to en- 
counter him in three strokes of the lance. If the challenge 
was accepted, the combat was conducted according to speci- 
fied rules, but such was the dexterity of the combatants that 
the encounter with the lance seldom proved fatal. 

14. The origin of the duel, which, happily, is now little 
used as a mode of private revenge, may be traced to the 
Gothic nations. Under the Feudal System and during the 
age of Chivalry it was greatly patronized, and it so far pre- 
vailed, at an early period, among the Franks and nations of 
Germany, that none were exempt from it but women, invalids, 
and such as were under the age of twenty-one and above the 
age of sixty. It was resorted to as a method of discovering 
truth, establishing innocence, and vindicating the character 
from a real or imaginary imputation. It is not surprising 
that a practice so absurd should have found adherents during 
those ages when the profession of arms was regarded as the 
only honorable employment, and at a time when the human 
mind was, comparatively speaking, unenlightened. 

15. Whatever opinions we may entertain of Chivalry at 
the present day, it certainly had a powerful influence in pro- 
ducing a favorable change in the manners of society during 
the ages in which it existed. It infused humanity into war 
at a period when men made it almost a business of life ; it 
introduced courtesy of manners among those who possessed 
but little refinement ; it fostered in its maxims a delicate 
sense of honor and a scrupulous adherence to truth ; it cher- 
ished the finest feelings and respectful attachment towards 
the female sex ; and no institution, perhaps, ever had a more 
powerful influence to elevate woman to her proper sphere 
than Chivalry. 

16. Chivalry embraced various orders or associations of 
cavaliers, formed for specific purposes, generally of a benev- 
olent character, many of which remain to the present time. 
These orders were generally of two descriptions, namely, 
military and religious, and were established in diff'erent 
countries, particularly in Palestine, England, Spain, France, 

13. What were jousts ? How was the challenge given ? If accepted, 
what was done ? — 14. Where may the origin of the duel be traced ? For 
what was it resorted to? Was it not surprising? — 15. What had chiv- 
alry? What did it infuse ? What did it introduce and foster? What 
did it cherish? — 16. What did Chivalry embrace? 



184 CHIVALRY. 

and Italy. The foundation of the order of the Knights 
Hospitaliers, who afterwards became so famous as the 
Knights of Malta, was laid about the middle of the eleventh 
century by a few Neapolitan merchants, who obtained per- 
mission of the Saracen Caliph to erect at Jerusalem a house 
for pilgrims. They afterwards founded, in honor of St. 
John, a church and hospital, from which they took their 
name, and, besides attending to the sick and pilgrims, they 
bound themselves by vow to defend the Christians of the 
Holy Land against the insults of the infidels. Thus the 
Hospitallers, without ceasing to be a religious, became a mil- 
itary Order. 

It. The Order of the Knights Templars was instituted in 
the year 1118, also at Jerusalem, by several French and 
Flemish noblemen. They occupied a house in the city 
which stood near the site of Solomon's Temple, from which 
they derived their name. The Teutonic Order was estab- 
lished by a few noblemen from the cities of Bremen and 
Lubeck about 1190, and was intended for the relief of the 
German pilgrims. 

Where was the foundation of the Knights Hospitallers laid ? What 
church did they build ? — 17. When and where Avas the Order of the 
Knights Templars instituted? When was the Teutonic Order estab- 
lished ? 



BOOK VL 

FRANCE. 



CHAPTER I. 



THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY; MERO- 
VINGIAN AND CARLOVINGIAN KINGS.— FR 031 A. D. 420 TO 

987. 

THE history of France is intimately connected with that 
of England, as the kings of the latter, for a long period, 
assumed the title of King of France, and held possession in 
it of varied extent, from the time of William the Conqueror 
to the reign of Queen Mary. The kingdom of France was 
originally possessed by the Celts or Gauls, a brave and war- 
like people, who were reduced to the Roman power in the 
time of Julius Csesar. The Franks, from whom the country 
receives its name, emerging from the forests of Germany, 
made an irruption into Gaul about the year 420, and gradu- 
ally increased in power under their successive kings, Phar'- 
amond, Clo'dio, Merove'us, and ChiFderic. 

2. In 481, Clo'vis, the son of Childeric, became King of 
the Franks, and is generally regarded as the founder of the 
French monarchy. He embraced Christianity through the 
influence of his virtuous queen, ClotiKda, the daughter of 
the Duke of Burgundy, and received Baptism on Christmas 
day. His example was immediately followed by three thou- 
sand of his subjects. Clovis made Paris the seat of his 
government, and after a long and prosperous reign, he left 
his kingdom, according to the custom of the country, divided 
among his four sons, a. d. 511. 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the history of France? By whom 
was the kingdom originally possessed? What is said of the Franks? — 
2. What is said of Clovis? What did he embrace? How did he leave 
his kingdom ? 

16 * 185 



186 FRANCE. 

3. In the year 690, Pep' in d^HeristaV became Mayor of 
the Palace, the first office under the crown ; at his death he 
was succeeded in the office by his son, Charles Martel', one 
of the most renowned warriors of his age. He defeated the 
Saracens in a sanguinary battle between Tours and Poictiers, 
in which, according to many historians, three hundred thou- 
sand of the enemy were slain, while the French lost only 
about fifteen hundred. Charles was succeeded in the office 
of Mayor by his son, Pepin the Short, who continued to 
govern France for several years, while the weak and indolent 
Childeric III. was nominally King. 

4. Such was the state of things when Pepin first thought 
of assuming the title and ensigns of royalty, while exercising 
the duties of the sovereign. Finding the people favorable 
to his views, and having obtained a favorable answer * from 
Pope Zachary, who had been consulted on the subject, he 
finally concluded to prosecute his design. Accordingly, in a 
great assembly of the people, he was proclaimed king, while 
Childeric was removed to a monastery, where he died three 
years after this event ; and with him ended the dynasty of 
the Merovin'gian sovereigns, a. d. 752. 

5. About this period the Lombards, who were already 
masters of a great part of Italy, aimed at subduing the 
whole, and had extended their conquests over the province 
of Raven'na. Even Rome itself was on the point of falling 
into their hands, w^hen Pope Stephen applied for assistance 
to the Emperor of Constantinople, in whose name the gov- 
ernment of Rome was still exercised. But Constantine, 
who was at that time too much engaged in his disputes 
with the Church to give his attention to the affairs of state, 
neglected to send assistance to the Romans, who in their 
extremity were obliged to turn for aid to the monarch of 
France. 

6. Pepin immediately responded to the call, but previous 
to any act of hostility, he sent, at the Pope's request, depu- 
ties to AstoFphus, the King of the Lombards, requesting 

* The answer of the Pope was in the following words : "It were 
better that he should be king, in whom the sovereign authority resides." 
— Eginard Annal. 

3. When did Pepin become mayor of the palace ? What is said of 
Charles Martel ? By whom was Charles succeeded ?— 4. Finding the 
people favorable to his views, what did Pepin do ? What became of 
Childeric?— 5. What is said of the Lombards? What did Pope Ste- 
phen do? What is said of Constantine? To whom did the Romans 
next turn for aid ? — 6. What did Pepin do ? 



FRANCE. 187 

him to desist from his hostile designs. His proposals, how- 
ever, were only answered by threats and insults. Pepin, 
therefore, hastily collected his army, crossed the Alps, de- 
feated the Lombards, and obliged Astolphus to accept humil- 
iating conditions of peace. But scarcely had he departed 
from Italy when the perfidious Astolphus recommenced hos- 
tilities, and laid siege to Rome. Pepin a second time crossed 
the Alps, and having again defeated the Lombards, solemnly 
bestowed on Pope Stephen and his successors in the pon- 
tifical chair his conquests in Italy. Thus began the Temporal 
Power of the Popes, a. d. 755. 

Y. Pepin was succeeded by his two sons, Charles and 
Car'lomon, but the latter dying shortly after the death of 
his father, Charles was left in possession of the undivided 
sovereignty. This distinguished monarch, known in history 
by the name of Charlemagn'e, or Charles the Great, is said 
to have been seven feet in height, of a robust constitution 
and majestic appearance. He was eminent as a statesman, 
and as a warrior he far surpassed all the sovereigns of his 
age. He carried on a long and sanguinary war with the 
Saxons, which finally resulted in the reduction of their whole 
country. At the earnest solicitation of the Romans, he 
turned his arms against the Lombards, who, under their 
king, Desidrius or Dideir, had broken the treaty concluded 
by Astolphus, and spread their ravages so as to endanger 
the city of Rome. He defeated them, and completely de- 
stroyed their power in Italy. He afterwards conquered a 
part of Spain, and about the year 800 the rank and title 
of Emperor of the West was conferred on him by Pope 
Leo III. 

8. His empire comprised France, Netherlands, Germany, 
Switzerland, a part of Italy and Spain. He labored inces- 
santly to diffuse a spirit of literature, and encourage the 
useful arts, throughout his vast dominions. He invited to 
his court, from foreign countries, men distinguished for their 
genius ; among whom was AFcuin, a learned and virtuous 
English monk, who opened an academy in the palace of the 
French monarch. Charlemagne himself, with his sons, fre- 
quently assisted at the lectures of this distinguished man. 

How were the proposals answered ? What was the result ? What did 
Pepin do after crossing the Alps a second time ? — 7. By whom was Pepin 
succeeded ? What is said of this monarch ? At the solicitation of the 
Romans, what did he do ? What title was conferred on him ? — 8. What 
did his empire comprise ? What did he labor to difiiise ? W^hom did he 
call to his court ? 



188 FRANCE. 

With regard to his table he was extremely frugal, and in his 
dress he was generally plain. The ladies of his court were 
usually employed at the needle or distaff, and he even took 
delight in appearing ornamented with the productions of his 
wife and daughters. 

9. Charlemagne died in 814, in the seventy-first year of 
his age, and forty-seventh of his reign. He was succeeded by 
his son, Louis I., surnamed le De'honnaire, or the Mild. The 
reign of this monarch was inglorious, and rendered unhappy 
by the unnatural rebellion of his sons, who twice deposed 
and imprisoned their father, and again restored him to the 
throne. Louis died in 840, leaving his dominions divided 
among his three sons. 

Charles II. presided over France ; Louis obtained Germany ; 
and Lothair'e reigned in Italy, under the title of emperor. 
Bitter contentions between the three brothers soon involved 
their subjects in sanguinary wars. Charles and Louis united 
their forces against Lothaire, who endeavored to deprive 
them of their inheritance. The rival brothers at length met 
in the famous battle of Fontenoy, where Lothaire was de- 
feated, and compelled to retire to his Italian dominions. The 
loss on both sides, in this battle, is estimated at one hundred 
thousand men. 

10. Charles, after a weak reign, was succeeded by his son 
Louis, the Stammerer, who, after a short reign, left his king- 
dom to his two sons, Louis III. and Carlomon. After the 
death of these princes, Charles the Fat was elected to the 
throne, but he governed with so much weakness that he was 
deposed, and the crown transferred to Eudes, during the 
minority of Charles the Simple, who afterwards succeeded 
to the throne. During the reign of this prince the Normans, 
under their celebrated chief, RolOo, invaded Neus'tria, and 
established themselves in the north of France, which from 
them took the name of Nor'mandy, A. d. 912. The remain- 
ing kings of the Carlovin'gian line were generally weak 
princes, and their reigns were not distinguished for any re- 
markable events. After the death of Louis Y., who died 
without issue, the French Lords refused as his successor his 

What is said of him with regard to his table, etc. ? — 9. When did 
Charlemagne die ? By whom Avas he succeeded ? What was the reign 
of this monarch? How did he leave his dominions? What is said of 
Charles and Louis? Where did the rival brothers meet ? What was 
the loss on both sides? — 10. By whom was Charles succeeded? Who 
was next elected ? During the reign of this prince, what took place ? 
After the death of Louis V., to whom was the crown transferred ? 



FRANCE. 189 

uncle Charles, Duke of Lorraine, and transferred the crown 
to Hugh Carpet, Duke of France, who, after defeating his 
rival, obtained possession of the throne, and thus formed the 
third or Capetian race of French kings, A. d. 987. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE CAPETIAN KINGS. FROM HUGH CAPET TO PHILIP VI. 
OF VALOIS.—A. D. 987 TO 1328. 

HUGH CAPET was an able sovereign, and his adminis- 
tration was directed with wisdom. He enacted several 
salutary laws, added considerably to his territory, and again 
made Paris the seat of government. Either through modesty, 
or a fear of exciting the jealousy of his nobles, he never as- 
sumed the ensigns of royalty ; even on great and solemn 
occasions he appeared in a plain and simple dress. 

2. Robert, the son of Hugh, succeeded his father in 996. 
This prince is described as handsome in person and gentle in 
disposition, but his reign presents few events of importance. 
His son Henry I. succeeded to the throne in 1031 ; his reign 
was generally tranquil and free from any extraordinary in- 
cidents. The reign of Philip, who succeeded his father in 
108-0, was distinguished for the preaching of the First Cru- 
sade by Peter the Hermit, and the invasion of France by 
William the Conqueror. The latter event laid the founda- 
tion of that long continued rivalship and series of hostili- 
ties which for several succeeding centuries existed between 
France and England. 

3. Philip died in 1108, and left his dominions to his son 
Louis VI., surnamed the Fair, an able and accomplished 
sovereign, who enjoyed a useful and prosperous reign. On 
his death-bed he addressed his son, who succeeded him, in 
the following words : '* Remember that royalty is nothing 
more than a public charge, of which you must render a very 
strict account to Him who makes Kings and will judge them." 
Louis VII. was the next sovereign who swayed the sceptre 

Chapter II. — 1. What is said of Hugh Capet ? What did he never 
assume? — 2. Who succeeded? What is said of him? Who was the 
next sovereign ? By what was the reign of Philip distinguished ? — 3. 
To whom did Philip leave his dominions? On his death-bed, how did 
he address his son ? Who was the next sovereign ? 



190 FEANCE. 

of France. In conjunction with Conrad III., of Germany, 
he headed the third Crusade to Palestine, but was most un- 
fortunate in that expedition. Louis had married El'eanor, 
heiress to the great duchy of Guienne, but divorced her for 
her levity and vices ; and in a few weeks afterwards she 
married Henry Plantag'anet, earl of Anjou, who, in the fol- 
lowing year, became Henry II. of England, and who, by 
his marriage, acquired a great addition to his possessions in 
France. 

4. Philip II., surnamed Augustus, succeeded to the throne 
in 1180. No prince since the reign of Charlemagne sur- 
passed Philip in military skill and enterprise. He signalized 
the commencement of his reign by the expulsion of the Jews 
from his dominions, and shortly afterwards joined his great 
rival, Richard I. of England, in the third Crusade. After 
the death of Richard, John, his brother, who succeeded him, 
was strongly suspected for having murdered Arthur, his 
nephew ; for this he was summoned by Philip, as his vassal, 
to be tried by a court of his peers. But on his refusal, Philip 
invaded Normandy, and wrested that important province 
from the English monarch. 

5. Philip died in 1223, and was succeeded by his son, 
Louis YIIL, surnamed the Lion, on account of his valor. 
He died after a short reign of three years, on his return from 
an expedition against the Albigen'ses, who had disturbed the 
south of France. Louis IX., commonly called St. Louis, 
succeeded to the throne at the early age of twelve years ; 
and during his minority his mother, Blanche, of Castile, 
filled the office of Regent, in which she displayed great abil- 
ities. In the person of St. Louis were united all those em- 
inent qualities that distinguish an illustrious sovereign with 
all the virtues that adorn the Christian. His benevolence, 
piety, and purity of intention are conspicuous in every ac- 
tion. In the earl}^ part of his reign he vigorously repelled 
the invasion of Henry III. of England, whom he signally 
defeated near Taillebourg, and finally compelled him to sign 
a treaty of peace. His zeal for religion prompted him to 
engage in the two last Crusades. This illustrious monarch 



What did he do ? Whom did he marry ? — 4. Who next succeeded 
to the throne ? What were the principal events of his reign ? — 5. By 
whom was Philip succeeded? When did he die? By whom was 
he succeeded ? In the person of St. Louis, what were united ? In the 
early part of his reign what was done? In what did he engage? 
Where did he die ? 



FRANCE. 191 

died of a fever near Tunis, in the fifty-sixth year of his age 
and the forty-fourth of his reign, a. d. 1270. 

6. St. Louis was succeeded by his son, Philip III., sur- 
named the Hardy, who continued the war against the infidels 
with vigor. He defeated the Saracens and compelled the 
King of Tunis to conclude a peace on terms favorable to the 
Christians. Philip lY., surnamed the Fair, from the beauty 
and elegance of his person, succeeded to the throne in 1285. 
One of the most remarkable events of the reign of this 
monarch was the suppression of the Order of the Knights 
Templars. Charges of the gravest nature being brought 
against them, Philip ordered all the Templars of his kingdom 
to be arrested on the same day. 

A committee was appointed at Paris, before which one hun- 
dred and forty Knights were examined, all of whom, with the 
exception of three, freely acknowledged themselves guilty of 
the denial of Christ, of sacrilege, and other enormous crimes. 

t. But as the persons accused belonged to an order which 
was religious as well as military, it became necessary to refer 
the matter to the ecclesiastical authorities. Accordingly, a 
General Council was convened by Pope Clement V. at 
Vienne, before which the investigation into the conduct of 
the Templars and their trials, which had now occupied nearly 
five years, was laid. After a deliberation of several months 
the Order was suppressed, and the property belonging to it 
was transferred to the Order of the Knights Hospitallers of 
St. John, who were still fighting the battles of Christendom 
against the infidels, from whom they had lately recovered 
the island of Rhodes. It appears that the Order of the 
Templars, though generally corrupt, was not equally so in 
all places, which fact accounts for the different treatment its 
members received in different countries. Many were ac- 
quitted, particularly in Germany and Spain ; some were con- 
demned to perpetual or temporary imprisonment ; while 
others, who, instead of repenting, obstinately repeated the 
free avowal of their guilt, were delivered to the secular 
power, to be punished according to the rigor of the law. 
Fifty-nine were burnt at Paris, and several others in the 
south of France. 

6. By whom was St. Louis succeeded? Who was the next sovereign? 
What was one of the most remarkable events of his reign ? Of what did 
they acknowledge themselves guilty?— 7. But as the persons accused, 
etc., what became necessary ? Where was a Council convened ? After 
a deliberation of several months, what was done? What appears? 
How many were burnt at Paris ? 



192 FRANCE. 

8. Philip died in 1314, leaving his dominions to his son, 
Louis X., surnamed the Wrangler, who was succeeded, after 
a reign of a few months, by his brother, Philip Y., whose 
short reign was distinguished for his severity against the 
Jews. With the succession of Charles lY. ended the Ca- 
petian line of kings, a. d. 1328. 



CHAPTER III. 



BRANCH OF V ALOIS; FROM PHILIP VL TO CHARLES VIIL 
—A. D. 1328 TO 1498. 

ON^ the death of the late monarch the crown devolved upon 
Philip of Yalois, the grandson of Philip III., the near- 
est male heir, as, according to the laws of the kingdom, fe- 
males were excluded from the throne. His succession, how- 
ever, was disputed by Edward III. of England, who claimed 
the crown of France in right of his mother, Isabella, the 
daughter of Philip the Fair. Philip maintained that a 
mother could not transmit to her issue a right which she 
never possessed, and the case being laid before the peers and 
barons of France, they unanimously declared in his favor. 

2. In the meantime, Edward prepared to enforce his claim 
by an appeal to arms. He invaded France with an army of 
thirty thousand men, and gained the famous battle of Gressy, 
in which his eldest son, the Black Prince — so called from 
the color of his armor — first displayed those splendid military 
abilities which afterwards rendered him so illustrious. Ed- 
ward, pursuing his good fortune, besieged and took Calais, 
which remained in the hands of the English until the reign 
of Queen Mary. It was during the reign of Philip that the 
title of Dauphin was given to the eldest son of the King of 
France. 

3. Philip died in 1350, and was succeeded by his son, John 
II., surnamed the Good. It was during the reign of this 
prince that the famous battle of Poictiers was fought, in 

8. When did Philip die ? Who were the next two sovereigns ? On 
the accession of Charles IV., what took place ? 

Chapter III. — 1. By whom was the succession of Philip disputed ? 
What did Philip maintain ? — 2. In the meantime, what did Edward do ? 
What battle did he gain? What did he take ? — 3. By whom was Philip 
succeeded ? During his reign w^hat took place ? 



FRANCE. 193 

which Edward the Black Prince added to the glory which 
he had already gained at Cressy. The French monarch, at 
the head of sixty thousand men, advanced against the Prince, 
whose army did not exceed sixteen thousand men; still, not- 
withstanding the disparity of numbers, the scale of victory 
turned in favor of the English. The French were signally 
defeated ; their King fell into the hands of the conquerors, 
and was led captive to London. The conduct of the Prince 
towards the fallen monarch deserves the highest commenda- 
tion. He endeavored to console him in his misfortune, 
waited on him at table, and, in every manner in his power, 
manifested towards him the utmost courtesy and respect, 
John was afterwards released on condition that he should 
pay one million five hundred thousand pounds sterling as the 
price of his ransom. But on his return to France, finding 
himself unable to comply with his engagement, he returned 
again to England, saying that, " If honor were banished 
from every other place, it should find an asylum in the 
breasts of kings." He was received with every mark of re- 
spect by Edward, who assigned him, as his residence, Savoy 
Palace, where he shortly afterwards died, A. D. 1364. 

4. On the death of John, Charles Y., surnamed the Wise, 
succeeded to the throne. This distinguished prince labored 
incessantly to retrieve the losses of the preceding reign, and 
so successful was he in his efforts, that in the course of a few 
years the English were expelled from all their possessions in 
France, with the exception of Calais, Bayonne, and Bordeaux. 
Charles himself did not appear in the field, but from his cab- 
inet directed the operations of his armies by his wise and 
prudent counsels. He raised to the office of constable of 
France the celebrated Du Guesclin', one of the greatest 
generals of the age. Besides being an eminent statesman, 
Charles was a distinguished patron of literature. He pos- 
sessed a library of nine hundred volumes, which was a con- 
siderable number for the period, when the art of printing 
was yet undiscovered ; and he may be regarded as the 
founder of the present magnificent library of Paris. On his 
death, in 1380, his son, Charles YI., surnamed the Well- 
Beloved, ascended the throne. 

5. The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. 



What is said of the conduct of the prince ? Of John ? On returning 
to England, what did he say? — 4. Who succeeded to the throne? What 
is said of him ? Of what was Charles a patron ? By whom was he 
succeeded ? — 5. What is related of this monarch ? 
17 N 



194: FRANCE. 

He fell into a state of insanity, which rendered him incapable 
of attending to the administration of the government. In 
consequence of the king's incapacity, regents were appointed, 
whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. 
During these calamities which afflicted France, Henry Y. 
of England invaded the country, and gained the memorable 
battle of Agincourt. The consequence of this victory, and 
other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him to conclude 
a treaty by which his succession to the throne of France was 
acknowledged on the death of Charles. Henry and Charles 
both died shortly after this event, a. d. 1422. 

6. Charles YII., surnamed the Victorious, asserted his 
right to the throne of his father, while at the same time the 
infant Henry VI. of England was proclaimed King of France 
under the regency of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The 
English laid siege to Orleans, a place of the greatest impor- 
tance, and so successful were they in their operations against 
this and other places, that the affairs of France began to 
wear a most gloomy aspect. The tide of misfortune, how- 
ever, was successfully turned by one of the most extraordi- 
nary events recorded in history. 

t. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost aban- 
doned, a young girl named Joan of Arc, about seventeen 
years of age, who had lived an humble life in a village on 
the borders of Lorraine, presented herself to the Governor 
of Yaucouleur, and maintained with much earnestness that 
she had been sent by Divine commission to raise the siege 
of that city, and procure the coronation of Charles in the 
city of Rheims. After undergoing a most rigid examination 
before a committee of persons appointed for that purpose, 
and also before the court and the King himself, it was gener- 
ally admitted that the commission was supernatural. She 
was accordingly intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. 
As she approached the city, her presence inspired the inhab- 
itants with confidence, while it spread dismay and conster- 
nation among the English, who hastily raised the siege and 
retired with precipitation, but being pursued by the heroine 
at the head of the French army, they were entirely defeated 
at Patay, with a loss of nearly five thousand men, while the 



During these calamities, who invaded France? What was Henry 
enabled to do?— 6. What is said of Charles VII.? To what place di'd 
the English lay siege? — 7. When the hope of saving Orleans was almost 
abandoned, what is related ? As she approached the city, what is said 
of her? 



FRANCE. 195 

French lost only one of their number. From this event Joan 
was called the Maid of Orleans. 

8. The second part of her mission, which yet remained to 
be accomplished, was equally arduous and dangerous. The 
city of Rheims and the intermediate country being in pos- 
session of the English or their allies presented apparently 
insurmountable difficulties. Charles, however, placing full 
confidence in her guidance, commenced his march, and as he 
advanced every obstacle disappeared ; the citizens of Rheims, 
having expelled the garrison, received him with every dem- 
onstration of joy. After the coronation was performed, Joan 
threw herself at the feet of Charles, declaring that her com- 
mission was accomplished, and solicited leave to return to 
her former humble station ; but the King, unwilling to part 
with her services so soon, requested her to remain for some 
time with the army, with which at length she complied. She 
afterwards attempted to raise the siege of the city of Cam- 
piegne; but good fortune seemed to have deserted her. This 
wonderful girl fell into the hands of the English, who, to 
gratify their revenge for the many losses they sustained 
through her valor, condemned her, under a charge of various 
pretended crimes, and caused her to be burnt in the public 
square at Rouen ! 

9. By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the 
success that had attended the operations of Charles. In 
this, however, they were disappointed. Such was the im- 
pulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France 
that the English in a few years were expelled from all their 
possessions in the country, with the exception of Calais. 
Charles passed the remainder of his reign in improving the 
internal condition of his kingdom. The close of his life was 
embittered by the unnatural conduct of his son, who at- 
tempted to poison his father. He died in 1464, a prince of 
acknowledged virtue, justice, and discretion. 

' 10. Louis XI., who succeeded to the throne, was distin- 
guished for the cruelty and tyranny exercised against his 
subjects. He left, however, some good regulations for the 
encouragement of commerce and the promotion of justice. 
His severity occasioned a revolt, which was called "the war 
of the public good." His sanguinary disposition was dis- 

8. What is said of the city of Kheims ? What did Charles do? After 
the coronation, what did Joan do ? What was her fate ? — 9. What is said 
of the impulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France ? 
How did Charles pass the remainder of his reign? — 10. What is said 
of Louis XL? 



196 FRANCE. 

played on a certain occasion, when he pronounced the sen- 
tence of death on one of his nobles. He ordered that the 
children of the unfortunate victim should be placed under 
the scaffold, that they might be sprinkled with the blood of 
their dying parent. His own life was rendered miserable, 
particularly towards the close, from the knowledge that he 
was despised by his subjects, and from the terrors of a guilty 
conscience. 

11. Charles YIII., the son of Louis, succeeded to the 
throne in 1483, at the age of thirteen years, under the re- 
gency of his sister, the Princess Ann. His father had ac- 
quired a claim to the kingdom of Naples. The young King, 
on coming of age, undertook an expedition against that 
country, which he easily subdued. Charles, who was re- 
markable for the sweetness and affability of his disposition, 
died in the twenty-eighth year of his age, and with him 
ended the direct line of the house of Yalois. 



CHAPTER IV. 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF LOUIS XII. TO THE REIGN' OF 
HENR Y III.— A. D. 1498 TO 1589. 

THE Duke of Orleans, who was the nearest heir after the 
death of Charles, succeeded to the throne of France un- 
der the title of Louis XII. He was a wise and popular sov- 
ereign. By his frugal policy he greatly diminished the bur- 
den of taxes, and gained the title of the Father of his People. 
Being urged to punish those who had been his enemies dur- 
ing the preceding reign, he replied, ** It is unworthy of the 
King of France to avenge the injuries done to the Duke of 
Orleans." 

2. He reduced Milan and Genoa, and prosecuted his claim 
to Naples with some advantage, but was ultimately unsuc- 
cessful. He joined the League of Camhy^ay against Venice, 
which, on account of its wealth, acquired by its commerce, 
excited the jealousy of its neighbors ; but the confederates 
afterwards quarrelled among themselves, and a new league 

What did he leave? On pronouncing the sentence, what did he 
order? — 11. Who succeeded Louis? • For Avhat was he remarkable? 

Chapter IV. — 1. What is said of the Duke of Orleans? What re- 
ply did he make v/hen urged to punish, etc. ? — 2. What did he do ? 



FRANCE. 197 

was formed against France. The French, under the cora- 
mand of Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, gained an im- 
portant victory over the confederates at the battle of Ra- 
venna, in which the Duke lost his life. After the death of 
this distinguished General, Louis soon lost all his possessions 
in Italy, and was compelled to evacuate the country. Before 
he was able to recover these losses he suddenly died — an 
event which filled the hearts of his subjects with the deepest 
sorrow. The exclamation that ''The good King is dead I" 
was heard on every side. 

3. As the late King had died without leaving any male 
issue, his cousin, the Earl of Angouleme, ascended the throne 
under the title of Francis I. Francis, then in the flower of 
his age, was of a romantic disposition and fond of military 
glory, and soon distinguished himself by the conquest of the 
Milanese. On the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Ger- 
many, in 1519, Francis and Charles Y. of Spain became rival 
candidates for the imperial crown, Charles was the success- 
ful candidate, and Francis, deeming himself injured, availed 
himself of this pretence for commencing hostilities against 
his rival. 

4. His first operations against Navarre were successful; 
but an unfortunate misunderstanding taking place between 
Francis and the High Constable, De Bourbon, one of the 
ablest of his generals, the latter basely abandoned his country 
and his sovereign and offered his services to the Emperor 
Charles. Bourbon fought against the French in the battle 
of Biagrassa, in which they were defeated with the loss of 
their celebrated general, the illustrious Bay^ard, surnamed 
the Knight without fear and without reproach. Bourbon is 
said to have wept like a child over the dying hero. " Weep 
not for me," said the noble Bayard, " but for yourself. I die 
in the service of my country ; you triumph in the ruin of 
yours." 

5. Francis, now taking upon himself the command of the 
army, hastened into Italy and laid siege to Pavia, but was 
there defeated and taken prisoner by the imperialists under 
the command of Bourbon. After thirteen months of cap- 
tivity, Francis obtained his liberty, and having crossed the 

"What did the French gain under the command of Gaston de Foix ? 
What is said of his death ?— 3. Who succeeded to the throne ? What 
is said of Francis and Charles V.? — 4. What was the consequence of 
the misunderstanding between Francis and De Bourbon? What did 
Bayard say while Bourbon wept over him? — 5. What did Francis now 
do? After he obtained his liberty, what is said of him? 
17* 



198 FRANCE. 

boundary of his own dominions, he mounted his horse, and, 
waving his hat, he exclaimed, "I am yet a King I" The 
conditions on which he obtained his release were so unrea- 
sonable that Francis, on regaining his liberty, refused to 
comply with them. The violation of this treaty again in- 
volved the two rival sovereigns in another sanguinary war. 
The Sovereign Pontiff having declared in favor of Francis, 
Bourbon, who commanded for Charles, laid siege to Rome, 
but was killed in an attempt to storm the walls. The city, 
however, was taken, and for two months abandoned to the 
pillage of the infuriated soldiery, during which time it pre- 
sented a scene of ruinous desolation, more frightful than that 
which it endured when it fell beneath the hand of the Goth 
or Vandal. 

6. After the war had raged for some time with but little 
advantage on either side, a truce was concluded, and the two 
rival monarchs were brought to a personal interview at 
Aigues Mortes, in France, where the warmest expressions 
of friendship passed between them. The following year 
Charles obtained permission to pass through France on his 
way to the Netherlands ; he remained for six days at Paris, 
where he was entertained with great magnificence. The 
war, how^ever, was again renewed between the two sover- 
eigns respecting Milan, which terminated unfavorably to 
Francis, who died shortly after peace was restored, in the 
fifty-second year of his age, a. d. 1547. Francis possessed, 
in many respects, the reputation of a great sovereign. His 
impetuous courage, his frank and generous disposition, gained 
him the affection of his subjects. He was a liberal patron 
of literature and the arts, which made great progress in 
France during his reign, and the French court acquired that 
polish and refinement which have since rendered it so con- 
spicuous. 

7. Henry II., who succeeded Francis, was brave, affable, 
and polite. He inherited in some degree the abilities and 
courage of his father. His reign, which continued for thir- 
teen years, was almost one uninterrupted series of hostilities 
with Charles Y. and his son, Philip II., of Spain. Henry 
gained an important advantage over the imperialists at the 
siege of Metz, but Philip, in his turn, gained the famous vic- 

What was the fate of Bourbon ? What is said of the city ? — 6. After 
the war had raged for some time, what was concluded ? What took 
place the following year ? When did Francis die ? What did he pos- 
sess? Of what was he the patron ?— 7. Who succeeded Francis ? With 
whom was he engaged in hostilities ? 



FRANCE. 199 

tory of St. Quentin. The reign of Henry was also signal- 
ized by the recovery of Calais, which was taken, after a siege 
of eight days, by the celebrated Duke of Guise, after it had 
remained in the possession of the English for two hundred 
and ten years. Henry's severity against the Hu'guenots 
gave rise to those sanguinary civil wars which for several 
succeeding reigns distracted and desolated France. His 
death was occasioned by an accident which happened to him 
at a tournament. 

8. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., who, after a 
short reign of one year, left the throne to his brother, Charles 
IX., then a boy, in the tenth year of his age, who commenced 
his reign under the regency of his mother, Catharine de 
Med'icis. At this time the Protestant religion began to 
make considerable progress in France, and had gained the 
patronage of several distinguished men, among whom were 
the Prince of Conde and Admiral Colign'y. The leading 
men in the administration were the celebrated Duke of Guise 
and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. In order to bring 
about an accommodation and to settle the difficulties without 
further bloodshed, a conference was held at Poissy for the 
purpose of discussing the points in dispute between the Cath- 
olics and Protestants. The conference was attended by the 
King and the most prominent personages of the court. The 
Protestant cause was supported by the famous Theodore 
Be'za, while the Catholic doctrine was defended by the dis- 
tinguished Cardinal of Lorraine. 

9. After this conference an edict was published granting 
important privileges to the Protestants. But the spirit of 
discontent still prevailed between the two parties, and the 
flame of civil war again burst forth and deluged the fairest 
portion of France in devastation and blood. The Catholics, 
under the command of the Duke of Guise and Montmoren'cy, 
defeated the Huguenots, under the Prince of Conde and the 
Admiral Coligny, in several engagements. During the con- 
test the Protestants lost their most able leader, the Prince of 
Conde, who fell in battle ; while, on the other hand, Charles 
had to lament the loss of the firmest support of his throne, 
the Duke of Guise, who was cut off by assassination. Peace 

By what was his reign signalized ? What occasioned his death ? — 
8. Who were the next two sovereigns? What is said of the Protestant 
religion at this time? Who were the leading men in the administration? 
What was the object of the conference at Poissy?— 9. After this, wliat 
was published ? What is said of the spirit of discontent ? During this 
contest whom did the Protestants lose ? What had Charles to lament ? 



200 FRANCE. 

was at length restored, and the Protestants obtained free tol- 
eration for the exercise of their religion. 

10. The most memorable transaction in the reign of Charles 
was the massacre of the Protestants, which took place on St. 
Bartholomew's Day. So various and contradictory are the 
accounts given of this lamentable event by different writers 
as to the number of the victims and the motives that 
prompted it, that it is a difficult task at the present time to 
arrive at the true state of the facts. On the occasion of the 
marriage of the sister of Charles to the King of Navarre, 
Coligny and other distinguished Protestant leaders were in- 
vited to court. During the celebration of the nuptial cere- 
monies various circumstances happened which contributed to 
bring about the odious measure that followed. As Coligny 
passed through the streets he was severely wounded by an 
assassin. The public voice attributed the attempt to the 
young Duke of Guise, in revenge for the murder of his father 
at the siege of Orleans. It proceeded, however, from the 
Queen-Mother, Catharine de Medicis, who was alarmed at the 
gradual influence which the Admiral seemed to acquire over 
the mind of Charles. 

11. The wounds which Coligny had received were not 
dangerous ; but his followers crowded to his residence. Their 
threats of vengeance terrified the Queen, and in a secret 
council the King was prevailed upon to give his sanction to 
the destruction of the leaders of the Protestant party. From 
the close connection of events immediately preceding the 
massacre it would seem that it originated in the animosity 
of the French court against the Protestant leaders, and was 
dictated rather by a momentary impulse than by any studied 
or preconcerted plan. The young King, whose mind was 
harassed by the frequent revolts of the Huguenots against 
his authority, was only induced to consent to this cruel meas- 
ure after the positive assurance of his mother and chief coun- 
sellors that his safety required that the leaders of the party 
should be cut off, and that if he waited until morning his 
most faithful officers, his family, and perhaps himself, would 
be sacrificed to their vengeance. 

12. In this state of mind he gave his consent to the pro- 

10. What was the most memorable transaction of the reign of Charles? 
During the celebration of the nuptials, what took place ? From whom 
did it proceed? — 11. In a secret council, what was the king prevailed 
on to do ? From what would it seem to have originated ? When was 
the king induced to consent to the cruel measure? — 12. V/hen did it 
take place ? 



FRANCE. 201 

jected massacre, which took place during- the night of the 
twenty-third of August and a part of the day following. 
The residence of Coligny was forced, and he was put to 
death, with his principal counsellors. The populace joined 
in the work of blood, and every Huguenot who fell in their 
way was furiously sacrificed. Although the massacre was 
only intended for the capital, still it extended to several prov- 
inces ; the Governors, though instructed to prevent similar 
excesses, had not always the power or the will to check the 
fury of the people, and the bloody tragedy of Paris was im- 
itated in several other towns. With regard to the number 
of the victims it is impossible to speak with certainty. Some 
writers exag-gerate the number to seventy thousand ; others 
estimate thirty, twenty, or fifteen thousand. The Reformed 
Martyrologist adopted a means of ascertaining the real num- 
ber by procuring from the ministers in the diiferent towns 
where the massacre took place a list of the names of the per- 
sons who suffered. He published the result in 1582, and in 
all France he could discover the names of no more than seven 
hundred and eighty-six persons. 

13. Charles, in order to palliate the shame of this murder- 
ous edict against the Huguenots, wrote to every court in 
Europe, stating that, having just detected their horrid plots 
against his authority and person, he was fortunate enough 
to escape from the imminent danger to which he was exposed 
by cutting off the leaders of the party. Many, deceived by 
this statement and yet unacquainted with the true nature of 
the facts, congratulated him on his good fortune. Among 
others. Pope Gregory XIII., on receiving the account of the 
transaction as given by Charles, offered up public thanks, not 
that he rejoiced at the death of the supposed traitors, but for 
the preservation of the French monarch and his kingdom 
from ruin.* 

* ^^ Religion had nothing to do with the massacre, Coligny and his fel- 
low Huguenots were slain, not on account of their creed, but exclusively on 
account of their alleged treasonable designs. If they had nothing but 
their Protestant faith to render them odious to King Charles, they would 
never have been molested ; for neither did Charles nor his mother ever 
manifest any special zeal for the Catholic Church, nor any special aversion 
to Protestantism, unless when it threatened the throne," — Ahp. Gibbons. 

What was the fate of Coligny ? With regard to the number of vic- 
tims, what is said ? What do some writers exaggerate it to ? What was 
the number according to the Eeformed Martyrologist? — 13, What did 
Charles do in order to palliate the shame? What is said of Pope 
Gregory XIII, ? Was the massacre of the Huguenots a religious or a 
political measure ? (See note,) 



202 FRANCE. 

14. Charles did not long survive this event; he died 
shortly afterwards of a pulmonary complaint, and was suc- 
ceeded in the throne by his brother, Henry III., a weak and 
fickle prince. In the beginning of his reign he granted im- 
portant privileges to the Protestants, but he afterwards joined 
the League projected for the defence of the state and religion, 
and took the field against them. By this conduct he lost the 
confidence of both parties. He v/as finally assassinated by a 
Dominican named James Clement, in the fourth year of his 
reign, a. d. 1588. 



CHAPTER Y. 



THE HO USE OF BO URBON. FR OM HENR Y IV. TO THE DEA TH 
OF LOUIS XV.— A. D. 1589 TO 1774. 

OX the death of Henry III., the King of Navarre ascended 
the throne of France under the title of Henry lY. He 
was afterwards called the Great. His accession was, how- 
ever, greatly opposed by a powerful party in the state. The 
Cardinal of Bourbon was proclaimed King by the army of 
the League, then under the command of the Duke of May- 
cnne, and took the title of Charles X. But the army was 
signally defeated by Henry in the famous battle of Ivry. 
The difficulties and dangers which surrounded Henry daily 
increased. He had been educated in the reformed religion, 
which he still continued to profess, while the greater part of 
his subjects were Catholics. The King began now seriously 
to turn his mind to the subject of religion, and, having asked 
several Protestant divines if he could be saved by professing 
the Catholic doctrine, and being answered in the affirmative, 
he concluded that it would be a safer policy, in his peculiar 
situation, to embrace that religion. Accordingly, in 1593, 
he abjured Protestantism and declared himself a Catholic. 

2. The event was productive of beneficial results to France. 
His claim was immediately acknowledged by all orders of 
the state, and the sanguinary civil wars which had so long 

14. By whom was Charles succeeded? What is said of Henry? 
How did he die ? 

Chapter V. — 1. On the death of Henry III., who ascended the 
throne? Who was declared king by the army of the League f — In 
what had he been educated ? What did he do in 1593 ? — 2. Of what 
was this event productive ? 



FRANCE. 203 

afflicted the kingdom were happily terminated. Henry, hav- 
ing gained quiet possession of the throne, was governed by 
principles of the wisest policy. By the celebrated Edict of 
Nantes he granted to the Protestants the free exercise of 
their religion, confirmed all their rights and privileges, and 
gave them full admission into all the offices of honor and 
emolument. 

3. Henry now turned his attention towards the improve- 
ment of his kingdom. A civil war of nearly thirty years' 
duration had produced the most calamitous effects. The 
land was untilled, the people poor and wretched, the crown 
loaded with debt. But by the wise and prudent measures 
of the King these evils were soon removed and prosperity 
began again to diffuse itself throughout the country. The 
wisest of his counsellors w^as the Baron de Rosny, after- 
wards Duke of Sully, in whom he found an able minister 
and a faithful friend. 

4. Henry, by his great abilities, having elevated France 
from the wretched condition in which he found it at his ac- 
cession to the throne to a high state of prosperity and hap- 
piness, fell a victim to the fanaticism of a man named Francis 
Ravaillac, who had long planned his death. As the King 
rode through the streets of the capital he was accidentally 
stopped by some obstruction in the way. Ravaillac, who 
was always on the watch, seized this favorable moment, 
mounted on the wheel of the carriage, and stabbed the King 
twice before any one could oppose the wretched murderer. 
Thus fell Henry lY., who may justly be ranked among 
the greatest of the French monarchs, in the fifty-seventh 
year of his age and in the twenty-first of his reign, a. d. 
1610. 

5. When the fatal event was made known in Paris, the 
whole city presented a scene of mourning. Ravaillac was 
seized and put to the most cruel tortures to induce him to 
confess the names of those who were his accomplices, but to 
the last he persisted in maintaining that no one except him- 
self was concerned in the action. As a King, Henry was 
deservedly great. To promote the happiness of his people 
seems to have been his predominate passion ; he was kind 
and familiar to the lowest of his subjects, and was beloved 

What did he do by the Edict of Nantes ? — 3. To what did he now turn 
his attention ? Who was the wisest of his counsellors ?— 4. How did 
Henry die ? Relate the circumstances of his death. — 5. What is said 
of Paris when the news was made known ? What is said of Henry as a 
sovereign ? 



204 FPwANCE. 

by them to a degree bordering on enthusiasm. His private 
life was far from being so commendable, and the manners of 
his courtiers were rendered profligate from the example of 
their sovereign. 

6. Louis XIII., the son of the late monarch, succeeded to 
the throne at the age of nine years, under the regency of his 
mother, Mary of Medicis, who displeased the nobility by her 
partiality for Italians, and during her administration the 
kingdom relapsed into many disorders. Louis, on assuming 
the reins of government, chose for his prime minister the 
famous Cardinal Rich'elieu, one of the greatest men of his 
age. During the reign of this monarch the kingdom was 
again distracted by civil war ; the Protestants attempted to 
throw off their allegiance and to establish an independent 
state, selecting BocheUe for the capital. Richelieu laid siege 
to this city, which finally surrendered after an obstinate re- 
sistance of twelve months. The fall of this city terminated 
the civil war and greatly weakened the Protestant power in 
France. A second rebellion was excited by the Duke of Or- 
leans, the King's brother, and supported by the Duke of 
Montmorency ; but it was finally crushed and Montmorency 
executed for treason. 

7. The great abilities of Richelieu were conspicuous in all 
his undertakings. While he extended the glory of France 
and commanded the respect of all the powers of Europe, he 
became also the zealous patron of literature and science, and 
founded the French Academy. He died in 1642, and was 
followed to the tomb in the succeeding j^ear by Louis him- 
self, in the forty-third year of his age and the thirty-fourth 
of his reign. 

8. Louis XIY. succeeded his father at the early age of five 
years, under the regency of his mother, Ann of Austria. 
She made choice of Cardinal Mazarin' for her prime minister. 
His administration was particularly distinguished by the de- 
feat of the Spaniards at Rocroy, Friburg, and Lens, who, 
taking advantage of the King's minority, had commenced 
hostilities. On the death of Mazarin, Louis, at the age of 
twenty-two, took upon himself the entire direction of the 
aftairs of government. To the happy choice he made of his 

Of his private life?— 6. Who succeeded to the throne? Who was 
chosen prime minister ? During the reign of Louis, what is said of the 
kingdom? By whom was a second rebellion headed? — 7. What is said 
of the abilities of Richelieu ? When did he die ? — 8. Who succeeded ? 
Who was made prime minister ? How was his administration distin- 
guished ? 



FRANCE. 205 

ministers may be attributed the brilliant achievements that 
distinguished the early part of his reign. The financial af- 
fairs were regulated by the famous Colbert', an able and 
sagacious statesman ; his armies were commanded by the 
Princes of Conde and Turenn'e, two of the greatest generals 
of the age, while the genius of Vauban' was employed in 
fortifying his towns. 

9. He subdued Franche Comte, which he annexed to 
France ; conquered a part of Netherlands ; overran Alsace, 
and twice desolated the Palatinate. Alarmed at the success 
that attended the arms of the French monarch, the League 
of Augsburg was formed, in which Holland, Spain, Sweden, 
and several other of the German states united against him. 
In nOl a second League was entered into by England, Ger- 
many, and Holland against the power of France. The 
splendid career of victory which marked the early part of 
his reign was now exchanged for a series of reverses which 
attended the close of his long and eventful life. His armies 
were no longer directed by the master spirits of Turenne and 
Conde ; they had, moreover, to contend with the genius of 
the Duke of Maryborough and Prince Eugene, who gained 
over them the celebrated victories of Blenheim, Ramillies, 
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, and at the peace of Utrecht Louis 
lost nearly all the advantages he had formerly gained. 

10. Louis died in the seventy-eighth year of his age and 
the seventy-third of his reign, a. d. It 15. His reign, which 
is one of the longest recorded in history, is illustrated by 
many brilliant achievements. The most impolitic measure 
of his long administration, and one that has incurred the 
censure of subsequent historians, was the revocation of the 
Edict of Nantes, granted by Henry lY. for the toleration 
of the Protestant worship. By this act all the Protestant 
ministers who refused to abjure their tenets were commanded 
to quit the kingdom within the space of two months. As to 
the other Protestants, they were allowed to remain in France, 
where they might freely carry on their business, '' without 
being molested or harassed on account of their religion," to 
use the words of the repealing act. Many, however, pre- 
ferred to follow their ministers into exile ; but as to the num- 

Who regulated the financial affairs? Who commanded his armies ? — 
9. What did he do? What league was formed against him ? In 1701, 
what was formed ? What is said of his career of victory ? What vic- 
tories were gained by Prince Eugene ? — 10. When did Louis die ? What 
is said of his reign ? What was the most impolitic measure ? By this 
edict, what was commanded ? 
18 



206 FRANCE. 

ber of persons who thus went into banishment it is impos- 
sible to ascertain. Some authors swell the number to five 
hundred thousand, while Larrey and Benoit, both Protestant 
writers, admit it to have been about two hundred thousand. 
The Duke of Burgundy, whose candor and ample means of 
research entitle him to credit, assures us that the French 
refugees did not exceed sixty thousand in all. 

11. Although the King, with the advice of his ministers, 
adopted these severe measures against the Huguenots, it can- 
not be supposed that this portion of his subjects was en- 
tirely without blame ; their frequent manifestations of hos- 
tility to the government, their many open revolts, which had 
plunged the kingdom into all the evils of civil war, might be 
offered as some palliation for the revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes. To this may be added the fact that all the Protestant 
governments of Europe at the time exercised the most brutal 
severity against the Catholic portion of their subjects. This, 
however, is but a feeble excuse. One wrong does not justify 
another. In our own age, happily more liberal and enlight- 
ened, we disavow the savage and unchristian spirit of perse- 
cution. 

12. Louis is said to have been handsome in his person and 
to have excelled in all the polite accomplishments of the time. 
The love of glory was his ruling passion ; this he pursued, 
not only by his military achievements and the splendor of 
his conquests, but also by the patronage which he gave to 
literature and science, by promoting all the useful arts, and 
by giving encouragement to commerce, manufactures, and 
public works. The capital was embellished, the palaces of 
Versailles and Louvre were built ; the Canal of Languedoc 
and other useful w^orks were constructed. The reign of 
Louis XIV. has been styled the Augustan Age of French 
literature, and is distinguished for the number of eminent 
men who flourished during that period. Conde and Turenne 
at the head of the armies have acquired imperishable fame ; 
Colbert in the cabinet ; Bossue't, Fenelon', Massillon', and 
Bourdalou'e in sacred eloquence ; Pas'cal and Descar'tes in 
mathematics and philosophy ; Racin'e, Moliere, and Boil'eau 
in poetry. 

What is said of the number who went into banishment ? How many 
do some authors state ? — 11. What cannot be supposed? What might 
be offered as some palliation for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes f 
To this what may be added ? What do we disavow ? — ] 2. What is said 
of Louis ? What has his reign been styled ? Mention some of the most 
distinguished men. 



FRANCE. 207 

13. Louis Xy., the great-grandson of the late monarch, 
succeeded to the throne at the age of five years, under the 
regency of the Duke of Orleans. The Duchess of Venta- 
dour was appointed governess to the young King, a lady 
well qualified for the important charge reposed in her. Louis, 
on coming of age, chose for his chief minister the virtuous 
and amiable Cardinal Fleury, who was then in the seventy- 
third year of his age, but still retained his vigor and activity 
till near ninety. By the wise and pacific counsels of this 
distinguished man the prosperity of France was revived and 
its tranquillity preserved for near twenty years. 

14. After the death of Fleury, France was engaged in the 
war of the Austrian Succession, which took place on the 
death of the Emperor Charles YI. The two competitors for 
the imperial throne were Ilaria Teresa, the eldest daughter 
of the late Emperor, and Charles, the Elector of Bavaria. 
The claim of the former was supported by Great Britain, 
while the cause of the latter was espoused by France and 
Prussia. The English and their allies under George II. 
gained the battle of Dettingen, and the French in their turn 
obtained the victory at the battle of Fontenoy. Peace was 
restored by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, and the claim of 
Maria Teresa was acknowledged. 

15. In 1755 war was again renewed between England and 
France respecting their American possessions. This was 
terminated by the peace concluded at Paris in 1763, when 
the most important of the French possessions in North 
America were ceded to Great Britain. Louis died in 1774, 
in the sixty-fifth year of his age and in the fifty-ninth of his 
reign. 

The reign of this monarch and that of his predecessor oc- 
cupied the unexampled period of one hundred and thirty-two 
years. 

13. Who succeeded to the throne? Whom did Louis choose for his 
chief minister? By his wise counsels, what was revived? — 14. In what 
was France engaged ? Who were the two competitors ? By whom were 
they supported? By what was peace restored? — 15. In 1755, what war 
was renewed? How did it terminate? When did Louis die? What 
was the length of his reign ? What period did these two monarchs 
occupy ? 



208 FRANCE. 



CHAPTER yi. 

LOUIS XVI. AND HTS MISFORTUNES; THE REVOLUTION AND 
ITS EXCESSES.— FROM 1774 TO 1795. 

LOUIS XYI., the grandson of the late King, succeeded 
to the throne in the twentieth year of his age. The 
situation of this virtuous and benevolent prince was beset 
with difficulties of no ordinary character. The prodigality 
of his predecessor had impoverished the nation and loaded 
the people with taxation ; a general corruption of morals 
and contempt for religion were manifested by those who 
were at the head of the government ; while the principles of 
atheism were widely disseminated through the infamous 
writings of Yoltair'e, Rousseau', and others. 

2. The deranged state of the finance first claimed the at- 
tention of Louis. He placed at the head of this department 
Turgo't, an eminent statesman, and chose Malesherh'es as 
his prime minister. These distinguished men, after several 
unsuccessful attempts to remove the evils and to reform the 
abuses of the state, resigned their situations and retired from 
office. The celebrated Neck'er, a native of Geneva, having 
succeeded Turgot at the head of the finance, pursued the 
same system of economy and reform, but, becoming unpop- 
ular with the courtiers, he was finally removed. 

3. About this period two commissioners from the United 
States arrived at Paris to solicit the aid of France in behalf 
of the Americans, who were then struggling for their inde- 
pendence against the power of Great Britain. Although the 
American envoys were at first denied an audience in a public 
capacity, still the cause in which their country was engaged 
excited the deepest sympathy among the French nobility and 
obtained many private volunteers, among whom the Mar- 
quis de Lafayet'te was the most conspicuous. When the 
news of the failure of Burgoyne's expedition reached Paris 
a favorable change took place in the French cabinet in regard 
to America. The Queen, who had always favored the inter- 

^ Chapter VI. — 1. Who succeeded to the throne ? What is said of his 
situation ? What were manifested ? W^hat were disseminated ? — 2. What 
claimed the attention of Louis? Who was placed at the head of this 
department ? Who succeeded Turgot ?— 3. At that period, who arrived 
at Paris ? What is said of their cause ? When the news of the failure 
of Burgoyne's expedition reached Paris, what took place ? 



FRANCE. 209 

est of the Americans, now espoused the cause for which they 
contended with renewed ardor. The King and his ministers, 
who had hitherto acted with caution and reserve, at length 
determined openly to acknowledge the independence of the 
United States. The American commissioners, Franklin and 
Deane, were received as public ambassadors, and in February, 
17t8, a treaty of amity and commerce was signed between 
France and the new Republic. 

As soon as this event was made public, the English am- 
bassador was immediately recalled from Paris, and war de- 
clared by Great Britain against France. 

4. Various causes have been assigned as the origin of the 
French Revolution. The public debt, which had been greatly 
increased by the benevolent efforts of Louis in assisting the 
people of the United States in gaining their independence, 
left the state of the finance in the most embarrassed condi- 
tion. The return of the French officers and soldiers after the 
successful termination of the American Revolution dissemi- 
nated through France a spirit in favor of liberty and repub- 
lican principles ; a general corruption of morals and open 
contempt for religion became more prevalent, particularly 
among the higher orders of the state, while atheism and in- 
fidelity were daily increasing. These and other circumstances 
contributed towards exciting that fearful storm which spread 
devastation and blood over the plains of France and convulsed 
the whole continent of Europe. 

5. After every plan for restoring the deranged condition 
of the finance had proved ineffectual, Louis convoked an as- 
sembly called the Notables, composed of persons selected 
from the highest orders of the state, to whom it was pro- 
posed to levy a tax on all classes without exception, in pro- 
portion to their prosperity ; but they refused to sanction this 
measure, as they perceived it would subject them to some 
personal sacrifices. After this a demand was made for the 
convocation of the States- General, a body consisting of the 
three orders, nobility, clergy, and commons, which had not 
been assembled since the year 1614, and never had a regular 
existence. 

6. The assembly of the States-General convened on the 

In 1778, what was done ? What was done by Great Britain ? — 4. What 
are some of the causes assigned as the origin of the French Revolution ? — 
5, What did Louis convoke? What was proposed? After this, what 
demand was made ? — 6. When was the States-General convened ? What 
did the commons do ? Of this body who was chosen president ? By its 
first act, what did Louis find ? 

18* O 



210 FRANCE. 

5th of May, IT 89, at Versailles, where it was addressed by 
the King in a mild and conciliatory speech. It was not 
long, however, before the members of the assembly dis- 
agreed among themselves. The commons, with such of the 
nobility and clergy as were disposed to join them, seized the 
legislative authority, declared themselves the representatives 
of the people, and styled themselves the National Assembly. 
Of this body Bailly was chosen president, while Mirabeau' 
and the Duke of Orleans, (a man of the most abandoned 
character,) were the two most prominent members. By the 
very first act of the National Assembly Louis found himself, 
in a great measure, deprived of his authority ; and all who 
refused to unite with the commons saw themselves shut out 
from power, and all their rights and privileges invaded. 

1. While these things were transacting at Versailles an 
insurrection broke out in Paris which was characterized by 
the most ungovernable violence. The Hotel des Invalides 
was taken by surprise, and thirty thousand muskets were 
seized. The prison of Bastile was demolished, the governor 
was massacred, and his head fixed upon a pike and carried 
through the streets amidst the shouts of the infuriated rabble. 
When the news of these violent proceedings reached Ver- 
sailles the King hastened to the capital with the hope of be- 
ing able to allay the tumult. He addressed the multitude 
with the warmest expressions of friendship, and succeeded in 
restoring a temporary calm ; after this he again returned to 
Versailles. But scarcely had he departed, when the insur- 
rection was renewed with increased violence. The infuriated 
populace directed their vengeance against all those whom 
they considered their oppressors, and the whole city of Paris 
was deluged in blood. 

8. They finally proceeded to Versailles, and demanded 
that the King should return to the capital. In compliance 
with their request, the unfortunate monarch, accompanied by 
the royal family, left Versailles and proceeded on his way to 
Paris. He was, however, protected from violence through 
the influence and efforts of the 3Iarquis de Lafayette, who 
commanded the National Guard. 

9. The progress of the revolution now made rapid ad- 
vances. The States- General underwent a change and was 

7. What broke out in Paris? What was done? When this news 
reached Versailles, what did Louis do ? Against whom did the popu- 
lace direct their vengeance ? — 8. Where did they proceed, and what did 
they demand ? By whom was Louis protected ?— 9. What is said of the 
progress of the revolution ? 



FRANCE. 211 

styled the National Assembly, The royal authority was 
nearly annihilated. The privileges of the nobles and clergy 
were abolished. The church lands confiscated. The mon- 
asteries suppressed, and France divided into eighty-three 
Departments. 

The next measure of the National Assembly was the for- 
mation of a new constitution, and from this circumstance it 
was styled the Constituent Assembly. 

10. In the meantime, Louis and the royal family escaped 
from the palace of Tuileries, and reached the frontiers of the 
kingdom, when they were detected and again brought back 
to Paris. The new constitution was at length completed, 
and received the sanction of the King. ,It established a limited 
monarchy, and placed all orders of the state upon an equality. 
After this the assembly dissolved itself on the 30th of Sep- 
tember, 1*791. The next assembly that met on the 1st of 
October was styled the Legislative Assembly. 

11. At an early stage of the revolution various political 
clubs were formed, among which the Jac'obin Club (so called 
from the place of its meeting) was the most predominant. 
This factious association long continued to possess a power- 
ful influence in the capital and to govern the proceedings of 
the Assembly. Another association, styled the Club of Cor- 
deliers, surpassed the Jacobins in avowed contempt for re- 
ligion, government, and law. On the 21st of September, 
1792, a new body was convened, styled the National Con- 
vention; at its first meeting the regal government was 
abolished, and France declared a republic. The next step 
was to consummate the drama. The King himself was ar- 
raigned at the bar to answer to various charges brought 
against him. 

12. In vain did Louis refute the absurd charges of which 
he was accused. In vain did the eloquence of Deseze vin- 
dicate his innocence ; his enemies thirsted for his blood, and 
the sentence of death was pronounced against him. The ill- 
fated monarch, who had passed through all these trying 
scenes with a fortitude not usually met with under similar 
circumstances, bowed in perfect resignation to that fate which 

How was France divided ? What was the next measure of the Na- 
tional Assembly? — 10. In the meantime what did Louis do? What did 
the new constitution establish ? What was the next assembly styled ?— 
11. At an early stage of the revolution, what was formed? What were 
the two principal clubs ? At the first meeting of the National Conven- 
tion, what was done? — 12. What is said of Louis? What sentence was 
pronounced against him ? 



212 FRANCE. 

he saw he was unable to avoid. On the 21st of January, 
1793, after taking an affectionate -leave of his Queen, his 
children, and his sister, the Princess Elizabeth, who had 
attended him in the most trying scenes, he was led to the 
place of execution. With a firm step he ascended the 
scaffold ; for a moment he surveyed the multitude with calm 
serenity, and then addressed them in a few words : '* I die 
innocent ; I pardon all my enemies, and I pray that France 
may not suffer for the blood she is about to shed." At this 
moment the noise of the drums drowned his voice ; he then 
calmly placed his head under the guil'lotine, and as the axe 
descended, his confessor exclaimed, *' Son of St. Louis, ascend 
to Heaven." Thus perished Louis XVI., in the thirty-ninth 
year of his age, a virtuous prince of noble character. 

13. After the death of the King, his amiable and virtuous 
consort, Ma7'He Antoinet'te, was marked out for destruction. 
On the 16th of October, 1793, having received the sentence 
of death, she was brought from the prison, meanly clad, 
w\i\\ her hands bound behind her, and conducted to the place 
of execution in a common cart, attended by her confessor, 
the Parish Priest of St. Landry. As she passed through 
the streets, she occasionally raised her tearful eyes, and gazed 
for a moment on the words Liberty and Equality inscribed 
on the houses. On the scaffold the royal lady conducted 
herself with her usual fortitude, until she was desired to lay 
her head upon the block ; but at that awful moment she grew 
pale and became apparently insensible. She was beheaded 
amidst the brutal cries of Vive la Republique."^ 

* It was of Marie Antoinette that the great Edmund Burke wrote: 
" It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Queen of France, 
then Dauphiness at Versailles, and surely never lighted on this orb, 
which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her 
just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she 
had just begun to move in, glittering like the morning star, full of life, 
and splendor, and joy. Oh ! what a revolution, and what a heart must 
I have to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall ! 
Little did I dream when she added titles of veneration to those of 
enthusiastic, distant, respectful love, that she should ever be obliged to 
carry the sharp antidote against disgrace concealed in that bosom ; little 
did I dream that I should have lived to see such disasters fallen upon 
her in a nation of gallant men — in a nation of men of honor and of 
cavaliers. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their 

On the 21st of January, what was done ? What words did he address? 
What did his confessor exclaim? — 13. Who was next marked out for 
destruction? On the 16th of October, what is said of her? As she 
passed the streets ? On the scaffold ? 



FRANCE. 213 

14. During the May of 1794, the amiable and beautiful 
Princess Elizabeth, the sister of Louis, was brought forth 
to execution ; and about a year later, the young Dauphin, 
an interesting child, died in prison of a disease contracted 
from confinement, and from the barbarous treatment he 
received from the guards. Of all the members of the royal 
family, the daughter of Louis, afterwards Duchess of An- 
gouleme, was the only one who did not fall a victim to the 
furious storm that desolated France. 

15. The National Convention was soon divided into furious 
factions, of which the principal were the Mountain party, 
headed by Robespier're, Dan'ton, and Mara't, men of the 
most unparalleled cruelty and depravity ; and the Girondists, 
of which Brisso't, YergniauM, and Condorce't were the 
leaders, and were less extravagant in their views. The 
Mountain party, under Robespierre and his associates, whose 
bloody dominion is styled "the Reign of Terror," having 
gained the ascendency, committed the most fearful massacres. 
Brissot and Yergniaud, the leaders of the Girondists, with 
twenty of their partisans, fell a sacrifice to the vengeance 
of the predominant faction. That monster of vice and 
cruelty, the Duke of Orleans, suffered the same fate from 
the hands of those very men whom he had been instru- 
mental in bringing into power. 

16. The Convention now indulged in mad schemes and 
the most extravagant excesses. The Christian religion was 
suppressed, and a decree passed, declaring that the only 
deities hereafter to be worshipped in France should be 
Liberty, Equality, and Reason. Nearly everything sacred 
was swept away. A republican calendar was established. 
The Sunday was abolished, and in its place every tenth day 
was appointed as a day of rest. The churches were despoiled 
of their ornaments and treasures; even the bells were melted 
and cast into cannon. 

IT. After these wild and impious proceedings, the Con- 
vention was again divided into two violent parties ; Rohe- 

scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. But 
the age of chivalry is gone ; that of sophists, economists, and calcu- 
lators has succeeded, and the glory of Europe is extinguished forever ! " 
Reflections on the French Revolution. 

14. During the May of 1794, what was done? About a year later? — 
15. How was the National Convention divided? What is said of the 
Mountain party ? Of Brissot, etc. ? Of the Duke of Orleans ?— 16. What 
was done by the convention? What is said of the churches? — 
17. After this, what is said of the convention ? 



214 FRANCE. 

spierre at the head of one, and Danton the leader of the 
other. Robespierre prevailed, and all his most conspicuous 
opponents were brought to the guillotine ; but his own bloody 
career was soon destined to terminate. Being condemned 
on a charge of tyranny, he was executed in July, 1194. 
After the fall of Robespierre, the Jacobin Club was sup- 
pressed, and during the following year a third Convention 
was formed, and the executive power vested in five Di- 
rectors. 

18. The sovereigns of Europe, alarmed at the extravagant 
proceedings of the revolution in France, began to consider 
the propriety of uniting their forces, in order to oppose its 
fearful progress. At an early stage of the convulsion a 
coalition was formed between Prussia and Austria for the 
purpose of reestablishing the royal authority and restoring 
tranquillity to the country. After the execution of Louis, 
the first of the five great coalitions was formed between 
Great Britain, Holland, Russia, and Spain against France. 
The combined forces, under the command of the Duke of 
Brunswick, invaded France, but were hurled back in rout 
and confusion. The French, elated by this triumph, began 
to think of carrying their arms into the dominions of their 
assailants. Accordingly, under the command of Dumourie'z, 
they subdued the Netherlands, Holland, Switzerland, and a 
part of Germany. 



CHAPTER yil. 



BONAPARTE AND HIS WONDERFUL CAREER.— FROM 1796 

TO 1815. 

IN 1796 the command of the French army was given to 
Napoleon Bo'naparte, then a young man in the twenty- 
seventh year of his age, who had previously distinguished 
himself at the siege of Toulon. This extraordinary genius 
soon astonished the whole continent of Europe by his brilliant 
victories. He completed the conquest of Italy, and compelled 

Who prevailed ? What is said of his own career ? After the fall of 
Robespierre, what was done? — 18. What is said of the sovereigns of 
Europe ? At an early stage of the Revolution, what was formed ? And 
after the death of Louis ? 

Chapter VII.— 1. In 1796, what was done ? What is said of Na- 
poleon Bonaparte? 



FRANCE. 215 

the Austrians to sign the treaty of Campo Formio, by which 
the French conquests in the Netherlands were confirmed. 
The Venetian territories were given up to Austria, and the 
Milanese was ceded to the Cisalpine Republic, which was 
newly formed out of the Austrian and Papal territories in 
Italy. 

2. Bonaparte next directed his victorious arms against 
Egypt, utterly destroyed the Mam'elukes in the famous 
battle of the Pyramids, and took possession of Cairo and 
all the Delta. In 1198 the French fleet was defeated by 
the English, under the celebrated Nelson, in the Bay of 
Ahoukir. In IT 99 a second coalition was formed between 
England and Russia, in which Austria and several other 
powers afterwards engaged. During the campaign which 
followed, the French were most unfortunate. The Aus- 
trians, under the Archduke Charles, and the Russians, 
under their general Suwar'row, gained several important 
victories in the north of Italy and in Germany, and by 
uniting their forces they threatened the frontiers of France. 

3. At this crisis, Bonaparte found it necessary to return 
to Paris to remedy the disorders caused by the misconduct 
of the Directory at home. By the aid of his partisans, 
Fouch^, Tal'leyrand, and others, he succeeded in abolishing 
entirely the Directory, framed a new Constitution, and 
caused himself to be elected First Consul. From this 
moment the affairs of France took a new turn. Bonaparte 
finding himself placed beyond all control, by his energy and 
activity surmounted every obstacle caused by the intrigues 
of his enemies ; and by suppressing various factions which 
had long existed in the country, succeeded in restoring order 
and tranquillity in every department of the government. 

4. Placing himself again at the head of his army, he 
effected the celebrated passage of the Alps, and defeated the 
Austrians in the memorable battle of Marengo. This vic- 
tory was followed by a second defeat of the Austrians at 
Hohenlind'en by the French under Moreau. These and 
other advantages on the part of France were followed by 
the peace of Luneville, with Austria, and the German em- 
pire ; and in the succeeding year, 1802, after the peace of 
Amiens with England, Europe for the first time since the 

2. Where did Bonaparte next direct his arras? In 1798, what took 
place? Who gained several victories in the north of Italy, etc. ? — 3. At 
this crisis, what did Bonaparte find it necessary to do ? By the aid of 
his partisans, what did he do ? What did he now do ?— 4. What did he 
now effect ? After the peace of the Amiens, what is said of Europe ? 



216 FRANCE. 

commencement of the Revolution enjoyed the blessing of 
universal tranquillity. 

5. Bonaparte spent the short interval that elapsed between 
the cessation of war and the renew^al of hostilities in per- 
forming various acts of public utility. In compliance with 
a previous contract with Pope Pius YII., he re-established 
the Christian religion in France, which had been suppressed 
by order of the impious Convention. He published a civil 
code ; offered great facilities to commerce ; and greatly em- 
bellished the city of Paris by new buildings and monuments. 
But at the same time his course was marked with cruelty 
and blood ; he exercised the utmost rigor against Moreau' and 
Pichegru', two famous generals, who w^ere accused of partici- 
pating in a conspiracy ; the former was exiled, and the latter 
strangled in prison, while a number of others were brought 
to the guillotine. The Duke d^Enghien', a prince of the 
Bourbon family, after a mock trial, was shot during the night 
at the castle of Yincennes. 

6. During these transactions, the mind of Bonaparte was 
actively engaged in maturing schemes of a higher ambition. 
After causing himself to be elected Consul for life, with power 
to appoint a successor, he began to think of assuming the 
sceptre. Addresses were made by the civil and military 
bodies, offering him the imperial dignity, w^hich he conde- 
scended to accept. He w^as accordingly crowned in 1804, by 
the Pope, Emperor of France, and in the following year he 
assumed the title of Ki7ig of Italy. 

T. The peace of Amiens was of short duration. In 1803, 
the war had been renewed between England and France ; 
and in 1805, a third coalition was formed by England, Aus- 
tria, Russia, Sweden, and afterwards by Prussia. The Em- 
peror immediately placing himself at the head of his army, 
took the field against the combined powers. At Ulm he 
captured the Austrian army of thirty-three thousand men 
under Mack; and in the memorable battle of Austerlitz, he 
defeated the united forces of Russia and Austria. At this 
battle the three Emperors w^ere present. This brilliant vic- 
tory terminated the campaign, and brought about the peace 
of Presburg, by which Austria ceded to France her Venetian 

5. How did Bonaparte spend the short interval ? In compliance with 
the contract with Pope Pius YII., what did he do? What did he pub- 
lish ? What acts of cruelty did he exercise ? — 6. After causing himself 
to be elected consul for life, what did he begin to think of? When and 
by whom was he crowned emperor? — 7. What was done in 1803 and 
in 1805 ? What did he do at Ulm ? At Austerlitz ? 



FRANCE. 217 

territories. A few weeks previous to the battle of Auster- 
litz, the English fleet, under Lord Nelson, gained a great 
victory off Cape Trafalgar, over the combined fleets of France 
and Spain. The English captured nineteen ships of the line, 
but had to lament the loss of their celebrated Admiral, who 
fell in the action. 

8. As the King of Naples had permitted the English and 
Russian army to pass through his dominions, he drew upon 
himself the indignation of the Emperor of France, who de- 
posed him, and placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, upon 
the Neapo'litan throne. He next compelled the Dutch to 
receive his brother Louis as King of Holland. After this, 
he subverted the constitution of the German Empire, and 
formed a union of the several states, under the title of the 
" Confederation of the Rhine ; " obliged Francis II. to resign 
his title of Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans, 
and take that, of Emperor of Austria; and raised the Electors 
.of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony to the rank of Kings. 

9. In 1806, Q, fourth coalition was formed, in which Rus- 
sia, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and England united against 
France. The Emperor, with his usual good fortune, anni- 
hilated the Prussians in the great battles of Jena and Auer- 
stadt ; immediately entered Berlin, and here commenced the 
Coyitinental system against English commerce, declaring the 
British Islands in a state of blockade, and ordering all ports 
to be closed against them. Peace was restored in the follow- 
ing year by the treaty of Tilsit, when Bonaparte bestowed 
on his brother Jerome the provinces wrested from Prussia, 
which he erected into the new kingdom of Westphalia. 
When the news of the Berlin Decree reached England, the 
British government issued their Orders in Council, by which 
all neutral vessels trading with France were compelled to 
stop at a British port and pay a duty. In consequence of 
these orders, the Emperor, who proceeded to Italy after the 
peace of Tilsit, issued his llilan Decree, by which all vessels 
submitting to the British search, or consenting to any pecun- 
iary exaction, were confiscated. 

10. Elated by the astonishiug success that attended his 
arms, the Emperor of France gave full scope to his ambition. 

What did the English fleet gain ? Who fell in the action?— 8. What 
is said of the King of Naples? What did he compel the Dutch to do? 
After this what did he subvert, etc.?— 9. What was formed in 1806? 
What did the emperor? What took place the following year? At the 
news of the Berlin Decree, what was done by the British government? 
What did the emperor issue ? — 10. On what did he next fix his attention ? 
19 



218 FRANCE. 

and set at defiance all principles of justice and moderation. 
He next fixed his attention upon Portugal, and so decisive 
was he in the execution of his plans, that the royal family- 
was forced to quit the kingdom and embark for Brazil. He 
compelled Charles lY. of Spain to abdicate his crown in favor 
of his brother Joseph Bonaparte, who was in consequence trans- 
ferred to the Spanish throne ; and Mura't, who had married 
the sister of Napoleon, was raised to the throne of Naples. 

11. The Spaniards, in this emergency, applied for aid to 
England, which readily granted them assistance. This cir- 
cumstance gave rise to the Peninsular war, which continued 
to rage from 1808 to 1813. 

In the mean time hostilities again broke out between 
France and Austria ; and fortune favored Bonaparte with 
his usual success. Having gained several important victories 
over the Austrians at Abensberg, Batisbon, and Wagram, he 
compelled the Emperor Francis to submit to a humiliating 
treaty at Vienna, by which he agreed to accede to the conti- 
nental system, and to give his daughter, Maria Louisa, in 
marriage to the Emperor of France. In consequence of this 
treaty, Bonaparte was solemnly divorced from the Empress 
Josephine, a woman of the most amiable character, and be- 
came allied to the imperial house of Austria. 

12. By the Treaty of Tilsit, Alexander, the Emperor of 
Russia, had acceded to the continental system against Eng- 
land, and agreed to exclude British goods from his dominions ; 
but finding this measure extremely injurious to his subjects, 
he thought proper to retract his assent. In consequence of 
this, Bonaparte determined on the invasion of the Russian 
empire. Early in the spring of 1812, he collected a splendid 
army, consisting of four hundred thousand infantry, sixty 
thousand cavalry, and one thousand two hundred pieces of 
artillery, and on the 24th of June he crossed the Niemen 
on this memorable expedition.* 

13. His progress towards Moscow, to which he directed 
his march, was interrupted by the Russians, whom he de- 

* The composition of this enormous force illustrates the almost uni- 
versal dominion to which Napoleon had attained. tScarcely half the 
number were Frenchmen; the reaiainder were Austrians, Germans, 
Italians, Poles, and Swiss. 

What did he compel Charles IV. to do?— 11. What gave rise to the 
Peninsular war? What did he compel the Emperor Francis to submit 
to' In consequence of the treaty, what followed? — 12. What is said 
of Alexander, emperor of Russia? What was the number of his army ? 
— 13. What is said of his progress towards Moscow ? 



FRANCE. 219 

feated at Smolensk, and the tremendous battle of Borodi'no. 
The latter was distinguished over all the bloody encounters 
of that time by its enormous slaughter. One hundred thou- 
sand men lay dead or mangled on the field of Borodino ! He 
afterwards proceeded to Moscow, which he found enveloped 
in flames and abandoned by its inhabitants. The city had 
been set on fire by the Russians to prevent its affording an 
asylum to the French army. Bonaparte, in this emergency, 
thought it prudent to retreat towards the frontiers. But 
there is scarcely to be found in the annals of history a parallel 
to the suffering which the French army now endured from 
cold and famine. It is stated that nearly thirty thousand 
horses perished in a single day from the severity of the 
weather ; and of the immense host with which he invaded 
Russia, only about thirty thousand men remained to recross 
the Niemen. 

14. In the meantime, the Emperor, leaving the remnant 
of his army after it had crossed the Beresina, near the fron- 
tiers, fled in disguise to Paris, raised another army of three 
hundred and fifty thousand men, and found himself opposed 
by 2k fifth coalition, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, 
Sweden, and several of the confederate states of the Rhine. 
Without losing a moment of time, he put himself at the 
head of his army, defeated the allied powers in the battle of 
Bautzen, repulsed them to Dresden, w^here Moreau, one of 
the ablest of their generals, was slain ; but was utterly over- 
thrown in the dreadful battle of Lcipsic, with a loss of forty 
thousand men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The com- 
batants in this great engagement, called the Battle of Nations, 
exceeded four hundred thousand, a greater number than has 
ever been known to have been engaged in any one battle in 
modern times. 

15. After this battle the Emperor fled to Paris, and made 
a vain attempt to rouse the French people. Without loss of 
time, however, the Allies crossed the Rhine, penetrated into 
the heart of France, and entered the capital. Napoleon, find- 
ing the situation hopeless, abdicated the throne of France, 
and, after various deliberations, the island of Elba was fixed 

What is said of the terrible battle of Borodino ? How did he find 
Moscow? How many horses perished in a day? How many men re- 
crossed the Niemen?— 14. In the meantime, what did the emperor do? 
Where did he defeat the allied powers ? Where was he overthrown ? 
What is said of the combatants in that engagement ? — 15. After this 
battle, what did the emperor do? What is said of the Allies? What 
place was fixed for his residence ? 



220 FRANCE. 

upon for his future residence ; but he was allowed to retain 
the title of Emperor. Matters being thus arranged, Louis 
XYIII. was restored to the throne of his ancestors. 

16. While the allied sovereigns were yet holding a congress 
at Vienna, for the purpose of arranging the affairs of Europe, 
Napoleon returned from exile and made another effort to re- 
gain the throne of France. Landing at Frejus, he marched 
with only eleven hundred and forty men, without opposition 
through the country ; presented himself in an open carriage 
to the royal army at Melun ; was received with shouts of 
applause ; entered Paris the same evening ; and was again 
proclaimed Emperor, amidst the loudest acclamations. Thus 
in twenty days after his landing at Frejus, he found himself 
quietly seated on the throne, without having spilled a drop 
of blood. This exploit, which is regarded as one of the most 
extraordinary of his life, is without a parallel in history, and 
evinces in a striking manner his vast ascendency over the 
French people. 

It. As soon as his return to France was made known at 
Vienna, he was declared by the Congress a traitor and an 
outlaw. A new and formidable coalition was formed against 
him by nearly all the powers of Europe. He placed himself 
once more at the head of his army, but was entirely defeated 
by the Allies, under Wellington and Blucher, on the 18th 
of June, 1815, in the memorable battle of Waterloo, with a 
loss of upvf ards of forty thousand men in killed and wounded. 

18. This battle sealed the fate of Bonaparte. He fled to 
Paris, abdicated the throne in favor of his son, and shortly 
afterwards surrendered himself to Captain Maitland, of the 
English ship-of-war Bellerophon, asking an asylum in Eng- 
land, which, he said in a letter to the Prince Regent, was the 
most powerful, the most constant, and most generous of all 
his enemies. But it was unanimously agreed among the 
allied sovereigns that he should be sent a prisoner to the 
Isle of St. Helena, where he arrived on the 17th of October, 
1815, and there died on the 5th of May, 1821, in the sixth 
year of his captivity, and in the fifty-second of his age.* 

* See Biography of Eminent Personages. 



16. While the allied sovereigns were holding a congress at Vienna, 
what took place ? Landing at Frejus, what did he do ? What is said 
of this exploit ? — 17. As soon as his return was made known, what was 
he declared ? Where was he defeated by the Allies ? With what loss ? 
—18. After this battle what did do ? Where was he sent ? When did 
he die? 



FRANCE. 221 



CHAPTER VIII. 

REIGNS OF LOUIS XVIII. ; CHARLES X. ; AND LOUIS 
PHILIPPE.— FROM 1815 TO 1848. 

AFTER the second dethronement of Napoleon, Louis 
XYIII. was again placed on the throne of France, 
which was now reduced to nearly the same limits as before 
the Revolution. The government was compelled to restore 
a considerable amount of the plunder collected at Paris, to 
pay £28,000,000 sterling towards the expense of the war, 
and maintain for five years an army consisting of one hun- 
dred and fifty thousand of the allied troops, to be placed in 
difi'erent fortresses on the frontiers. Mura't, who had been 
raised to the throne of Naples, and Marshal Ney, having 
both taken part with Bonaparte after his return from Elba, 
were sentenced to be shot. 

2. Louis XYIII. was succeeded in 1824 by his brother, 
the Count d'Artois, then a man of sixty-six, under the title 
of Charles X. The reign of this monarch was signalized by 
two foreign enterprises ; one in favor of the Greeks, in which 
France united with England and Russia, the other against 
the city of Algiers, which surrendered to the French after a 
siege of six days, on the 5th of July, 1830. This reign was 
also disturbed by the contests between the ultra-royalists 
and the liberal party. 

3. In March, 1830, the chamber of deputies made a strong 
stand against the ministry ; and in consequence of this, the 
chamber was dissolved by the King and new elections or- 
dered. On the 26th of July, it having been ascertained that 
a great majority of the newly-elected members were liberal, 
an ordinance was issued by the government, dissolving the 
chamber before it met, suspending the liberty of the press, 
and altering the mode of elections. 

4. The publication of this ordinance caused the greatest 
commotion in Paris. The citizens took up arms against the 
government, and on the 29th of July gained a decided ad- 
vantage over the King's guards. The trembling monarch 

Chapter VIII. — 1. Who was again placed upon the throne? What 
was the government compelled to do ? — 2. Who succeeded Louis XVIII. 
in 1824? What two enterprises marked the reign of Charles X. ? — 3. 
What conflict took place between the government and the chamber of 
deputies in 1830? — 4. What did the Parisians do? 
19* 



222 FRANCE. 

now withdrew the fatal ordinance ; but it was too late. That 
document had sealed the ruin of a line of sixty kings. Charles 
fled to England, and died a helpless wanderer. The chamber 
of deputies met on the 3d of August ; the throne was de- 
clared vacant, and the Duke of Orleans was called to accept 
the crown. On the 9th of August, 1830, the Duke took the 
oath prescribed, and became ruler of France under the title 
of Louis Philippe, King of the French. 

5. The first four or five years of this reign were years 
of fear and unquietness. The citizen King found himself 
surrounded by difficulties. Arrayed against him were the 
adherents of the fallen dynasty, those who cherished the 
brilliant memory of Napoleon, and the Republicans, who 
were now rapidly increasing in numbers. Each party was 
actively engaged in conspiring its own future triumph, and 
none of them shrank from the idea of employing force to 
gain its ends. There seemed to be a yearning for fresh ex- 
citement. Universal distrust prevailed. A complex force 
of police found ample employment in watching the move- 
ments of men who were suspected of dangerous projects. 

6. While the elements of disturbance were thus abundant, 
a wretched fanatic, named Fieschi, set up at a window, before 
which Louis Philippe and his sons were to pass, a machine 
composed of twenty-five gun-barrels, which he discharged at 
once against the royal family. Forty persons fell, killed or 
mangled ; but the King passed on unharmed, although a 
bullet grazed his forehead. Despotic laws were immediately 
enacted. The press was fettered. A picture could not be 
sold without official permission. Insurrection was confronted 
by cannon. The government was hated, but disorder quailed 
before its cold, remorseless strength. France, however, if 
not contented, grew tranquil. 

T. A system of public schools was established in the early 
years of the reign of Louis Philippe; and in 1838 France 
saw its first line of railway constructed. These were steps 
on the road of real progress. 

8. Thiers gave expression to the changed national feeling 
when, in 1840, on the part of the government, he asked Eng- 
land to restore to France the bones of Napoleon. The re- 
quest was courteously granted. A French ship of war was 

To what country did the kina^ fly ? Who was now called to accept 
the crown ? — 5. Describe the difficulties of the new reign and the state 
of political parties in France. — 6. Who attempted to murder the royal 
family, and with what result ? — 7. What is said of public schools and 
railroads ? — 8. What is said of the remains of Napoleon ? 



FRANCE. 223 

sent to carry the remains home. The lonely grave under 
the willow-tree, at St. Helena, was opened. The body had 
been so skilfully embalmed that nineteen years of death had 
not effaced the expression of the well-remembered features. 
Once more men looked with reverence and pity upon the 
almost unchanged countenance of him who had been the 
glory and the scourge of his age. King and lord and peasant 
attended the vast funeral procession that wended its Avay 
through the streets of Paris to the church of the Invalides, 
where the remains of the greatest military genius of modern 
times found a suitable resting-place. 

9. Down to the very close of Louis Philippe's reign, 
France toiled to establish her supremacy over the city of 
Algiers and that portion of northern Africa which she had 
marked as her own. It was a fair and ample region — the 
Libya of the Romans, and one of the chief sources of their 
supply of wheat. The natives, however, refused to yield to 
their new masters. Pitiless and incessant war was waged, 
and whole tribes annihilated. The most formidable antago- 
nist encountered by the French was the brave Emir, Abd-el- 
Kad'r. For thirteen years he battled with varied fortune, 
and it was only in 184Y that he surrendered to Gen. Lamo- 
riciere. France was now mistress of Algeria. 

10. Though the period of Louis Philippe's rule was peace- 
ful, the expenses of himself and his go\ernment were an 
enormous strain on the kingdom. He had learned little from 
experience and misfortune.* The taxes became heavier year 
after year. Furnaces, it is said, were heated in the royal 
kitchen at an annual expense of about a quarter of a million 
dollars. The standing army was large and its cost immense. 
The crops failed in 1845 and 1846, and prices rose to a famine 
point. Under such a weight of depressing circumstances, the 
people grew more restless and discontented, and the clouds of 
a sweeping revolutionary storm began to gather over Europe. 

11. For some time previously to the year 1848, various 
incidents occurred to give indications of the disturbed state 
of society and the approaching upheaval of the masses. The 

* Louis Philippe was obliged to fly from France in 1793 — the terrible 
time of the Revolution. He had taught school in Switzerland, and had 
been a wanderer in England and America. 

9. Where did France toil to establish her supremacy ? How did the 
natives act ? Who was the most formidable antagonist encountered by 
the French? — 10, What is said of the expenses of Louis Philippe's 
reign? What happened to the crops in 1845-6 ? How did the people 
act? — 11. Previously to the year 1848, what occurred? 



224 FRANCE. 

flame of revolution had already burst forth in Italy and Ger- 
many, and was not long in communicating its effects to the 
excitable Parisian populace. In the early part of January, 
1848, an open demonstration was made in favor of reform, 
and reform banquets were arranged to take place in various 
cities, especially in Paris. The government not only pro- 
hibited these reform festivals, but the King, in a speech from 
the throne, censured in severe terms the whole movement as 
tending to excite blind and hostile passions. These measures 
only tended to exasperate the minds of the people. They 
paraded the streets in crowds, with the cry of reform and 
" down with Guiz'ot," the Minister of Foreign Affairs. One 
of these processions, on the night of the 23d of February, 
1848, halted in front of the foreign office, and while still in 
that situation, a gun was discharged, and the military posted 
there thinking themselves attacked, fired upon the crowd, and 
fifty-two persons fell, either killed or wounded. 

12. This was a signal for an open revolt. The news spread 
quickly through Paris ; the alarm-bell was sounded, and in a 
few hours the whole city was in the wildest state of excite- 
ment. The people flew to arms, and were joined by the 
National Guard. King Louis Philippe, alarmed at this sud- 
den change of affairs, and fearing for his own safety, imme- 
diately abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count de 
Paris, and fled with his queen* to England, where he was 
shortly afterwards joined by the other members of his family. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE NEW REPUBLIC SOON SUCCEEDED BY THE SECOND 
EMPIRE. — REIGN AND DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON IIL — 
GLANCE AT THE PRESENT FRENCH REPUBLIC. 

WHEN the flight of Louis Philippe became known, the 
monarchy was abolished, and a republican form of gov- 
ernment proclaimed. As soon as the news of the success of 

■^ The royal pair travelled under the simple name of Smith — Mr. and 
Mrs. Smith ! 

Where had the flame burst forth ? To what did these measures tend ? 
What took place on February 23d, 1848 ?— 12. What followed ? What 
became of the king ? 

Chapter IX.— 1. What followed the flight of the king? 



FRANCE. 225 

the insurrection reached England, Prince Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte * hastened to Paris, and addressed a few lines to 
Lamarti'ne, then the head of the provisional government, 
announcing his arrival, and his willingness to place himself 
under the banner of the republic. To this letter the govern- 
ment replied by ordering him to quit Paris within twenty- 
four hours, and he again quietly withdrew to England. A 
few months afterwards, Louis Napoleon was elected to the 
Constituent Assembly from the Department of Seine, by a 
large majority, and after some opposition took his seat in 
that body. 

In the meantime an insurrection broke out in Paris ac^ainst 
the new government. It was instigated by the Socialist 
leaders, who wished to destroy every distinction of rank and 
fortune, and aimed at elevating themselves to power, and 
enriching themselves by plundering their more wealthy 
neighbors. The streets were barricaded and the most for- 
midable preparations were made to resist the government 
forces. Alarmed at the bold determination of the insurgents, 
the National Assembly invested General Cavaignac' with 
dictatorial power, and intrusted to him the suppression of 
the revolt. After a sanguinary conflict, which lasted three 
days, the government triumphed. The barricades were car- 
ried, and the rebels dispersed. This, however, was not ac- 
complished without a serious sacrifice of life and destruction 
of property. Among the victims who fell on the occasion, 
none were more deeply lamented than Archbishop Affre of 
Paris. During the contest, this brave and illustrious man 
approached the barricades, with a view of soothing the angry 
feelings of the combatants. His presence inspired respect, 
and both parties for a short time ceased from the conflict. 
But, unhappily, while he was holding a conference with the 
insurgents, he received a mortal wound, and was borne in a 
dying state from the barricades. 

2. As soon as order was restored, an election for President 

* Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was a son of Louis Bonaparte, ex-king 
of Holland and brother of the Emperor Napoleon I. His career before 
this date had been very eventful. He was born at Paris, in 1808. He 
had lived in Switzerland, Italy, the United States, and England. 

Who hastened to Paris? To this letter what answer was given? 
What happened a few months after this ? In the meantime, what hap- 
pened in Paris ? By whom was it instigated ? Who was clothed Avith 
dictatorial power ? How was the insurrection suppressed ? Who were 
among the victims ? — 2. Who were the candidates for the presidency, 
and who was elected ? 

P 



226 FRANCE. 

of the new Republic took place. There were no less than 
six candidates, the most prominent of whom were Louis Na- 
poleon, General Cavaignac, and Lamartine ; the first named, 
however, was elected by a large majority over all his com- 
petitors.* Napoleon entered on the duties of his office of 
President with energy, and soon succeeded in giving stability 
to the government. As his term of office drew towards a 
close, a formidable conspiracy was entered into, chiefly by 
the members of the Assembly, having for its object the over- 
throw of the existing government, and the arrest and im- 
prisonment of the President. Louis Napoleon, however, 
being made aware of the movement, anticipated their designs^ 
by seizing on the government and dissolving the National* 
Assembly. He saw a crown within his reach, and grasped 
at the royal bauble. He then appealed to the people, who 
approved of his coup d^etat, and invested him with the su- 
preme sovereignty, by a vote of nearly seven millions of a 
majority over all opposition. In 1852 he became Emperor 
under the title of Napoleon Ill.f France craved rest under 
a strong government. She got it, and was satisfied. In 
1853 Napoleon married Eugenie de Montijo, Countess of 
Teba, a gifted and most amiable lady ; and three years later 
the Prince Imperial was born. 

3. Notwithstanding a saying attributed to the new Em- 
peror, " L^ Empire, c^est la paix " — the empire is peace — 
the French were soon engaged in war. In 1853, the Czar 
Nicholas, thinking the moment opportune for carrying out 
his long-cherished scheme of aggrandizement at the expense 
of Turkey, declared war against that power and invaded the 
Danubian Provinces. The flimsy pretext for this aggressive 
measure was of protecting the Greek Christians persecuted 
by the Turks, although they enjoyed, in reality, more religious 
liberty than did the Catholic Poles, in the"^ Czar's own do- 
minions. France and England formed an alliance with the 
Sultan, and deckred war against Russia, in 1854. The allied 
powers soon drove the Russians from the Danubian Prov- 

* Louis Napoleon received five and a half millions of votes, while his 
fiv^e competitors did not together receive two millions. 

t The son of Napoleon I. died at Vienna in 1832. After the abdica- 
tion of his father in 1815, he was proclaimed Emperor under the name 
of Napoleon II., but it was an empty title, as he never reigned. 

What conspiracy was entered into, and how did Napoleon act? 
When did he become Emperor ? — 3. What did the Czar Nicholas in 
1853? What powers allied themselves against Russia ? What did the 
allies? 



FEANCE. 227 

inces ; but they aimed to greater results, and they resolved 
to strike a blow that would check forever Russia's ambitious 
schemes. 

4. With this view, the combined forces of England, France, 
and Turkey, numbering sixty thousand men, landed at Eupa- 
to'ria on the 4th of September, 1854, and marched on the 
Russian stronghold, Sebas'topol. On the 20th they encoun- 
tered the enemy, and defeated him in the bloody battle of 
Alma. They then pushed vigorously their operations against 
Sebastopol, upon which the attention of the civilized world 
was to be drawn for nearly a year, by the heroic daring of 
the besiegers and the stubborn defence of the besieged. The 
entrance of the harbor having been obstructed by the Russians 
by sinking several battle-ships and frigates, the allies resolved 
to take the place by land, and on the 11th of October they com- 
menced the bombardment with two hundred pieces of heavy 
artillery. This siege may be called one continued battle, for 
day and night the work of bloodshed and destruction was 
carried on with ever renewed vigor. Reinforcements were 
continually arriving, and in January, 1855, the allied army 
was strengthened by a corps from Sardinia. The forts at 
the entrance of the harbor had been silenced or blown up by 
the French and English fleets ; the doomed city itself was a 
pile of ruins when the general assault was given, September 
8th, 1855. The French finally succeeded in carrying by 
storm the famous tower, Malakoff, and Sebastopol was now 
untenable. The Russian commander, Prince Gortschakoff, 
after a fruitless attempt to intrench himself in the city and 
protract the defence, sank his fleet, blew up the fortifications, 
and evacuated the place. Sebastopol was taken. 

5. During the siege, the Czar Nicholas died, it is said, of a 
broken heart at the failure of his plans. He was succeeded 
by his son, Alexander II., who after the fall of Sebastopol 
agreed upon an armistice. Peace was finally concluded, 
and by the treaty signed at Paris in March, 1856, Russia 
renounced her protectorate over the Danubian Provinces. 
The navigation of the Danube was declared free, and the 
Black Sea neutral water, wherein no vessel of war can 
navigate. Turkey, on the other side, solemnly confirmed 
all the privileges heretofore granted her Christian subjects. 

4. Where did they land in September, 1854? What great battle was 
fought? What place did they besiege? — 5. Give an account of the 
siege of Sebastopol. What became of the Czar Nicholas? Who suc- 
ceeded him ? When was peace concluded ? What were the conditions 
of the treaty ? 



228 FRANCE. 

Russia's power, if not her desire to oppress Turkey, was for 
the time effectually paralyzed. 

6. Such is the brief outline of the bloody conflict known 
as the " Crimean War," and during which the world saw the 
extraordinary spectacle of the banners of the Cross and the 
Crescent floating side by side, and the two old enemies, 
France and England, fighting in one common cause. Truly, 
the designs of an all-wise Providence are impenetrable. 

7. The year 185t saw France and England again united 
in a war against the Emperor of China, to obtain redress for 
insults proffered to their flags, and to punish the Chinese for 
cruelties perpetrated upon their missionaries. The allies 
took Canton, and advanced on Pekin so promptly that the 
Chinese Emperor hastened to sign a treaty of peace ; but, 
no sooner relieved from the presence of his enemies, he broke 
his faith and persecuted the Christians anew. Another ex- 
pedition was sent to China, and the victorious army of the 
allies entered Pekin in October, 1860. A new treaty of 
peace was then signed, far more advantageous to the western 
powers than that of 1858. By it they secured the right of 
having an ambassador at Pekin. The Christians were 
guaranteed the free exercise of their religion, eight Chinese 
ports were opened to European commerce, and, finally, 
France and England received each a war indemnity of sixty 
thousand francs. 

8. Another and similar expedition to Cochin-China was 
undertaken, in 1858, by France and Spain, the Emperor of 
Annam having given them the same grounds of offence as 
that of China. The allies captured Tourane and Saigon, and 
suspended operations for a time, Spain having accepted a 
pecuniary compensation, and withdrawn from the conflict. 
But France resumed active hostilities in 1862, and compelled 
the Emperor of Annam to recognize the rights of the Chris- 
tians, to pay her an indemnity and cede her three provinces, 
and to open three ports in Tonkin to commerce. 

9. Simultaneously with these minor expeditions, France 
became involved in another continental war. A quarrel had 
sprung up between her ally, Victor Emmanuel, King of Sar- 
dinia, and the Emperor of Austria. The latter having taken 
alarm at warlike preparations that were in progress in Sar- 

6. What singular spectacle was presented by the Crimean war ? — 7. 
What expedition did France and England undertake in 1857 ? Why ? 
What caused a renewal of hostilities ? How did the war end ? — 8. 
Give an account of the expedition to Cochin-China. — 9. In what other 
war did France become involved ? 



FRANCE. 229 

dinia, protested against them, and, being unheeded, ordered 
his army in the Lombardo-Yenetian provinces to cross the 
Tessino and invade the Sardinian territory. This act of 
hostility caused Napoleon to send immediately a French 
army into Italy. A short but bloody war ensued. On the 
4th of June, 1859, the contending armies fought the cele- 
brated battle of Magen'ta, which was gained by the French. 
On the 24th it was followed by the still bloodier engagement 
of Solferi'no, which lasted sixteen hours. Napoleon and 
Francis Joseph were in command of their respective armies, 
and their presence seemed to instil new fury into the combat- 
ants. Finally, the Austrians having suffered terrible losses, 
retreated acoss the Mincio, leaving the French in possession 
of the battle-field. Thus Napoleon III. humbled Austria 
and aided the ambitious projects of his friend, Victor Emman- 
uel. 

10. A truce followed. The two Emperors had a personal 
interview at Villa-franca, and agreed upon the basis of a 
treaty of peace, which was finally concluded at Zurich. Sar- 
dinia obtained Lombardy, and France had for her share Savoy 
and Nice. 

11. But the Old World did not afford sufficient scope for 
the scheming and restless Emperor of France. The republic 
of Mexico, ever a wild chaos of misrule and disorder, had 
become lately so intolerable that France, Spain, and England 
were provoked into sending a military force in the hope of 
applying remedies to evils that were a scandal to Christen- 
dom. England and Spain, however, soon withdrew their 
forces, and the whole weight of the expedition fell upon 
France. The French army under General Forey rapidly 
subdued the country, and entered the city of Mexico in May, 
1863. The President fled. Napoleon had upon his hands a 
nation without a government. It was resolved to found a 
hereditary monarchy, and to ofi'er the crown to the Arch- 
duke Maximilian, brother to the Emperor of Austria. The 
unhappy young man accepted the fatal gift. Soon France 
withdrew her army, and Maximilian found himself surrounded 
by enemies. He was betrayed and brutally murdered in 1861. 
The Mexican war was one of the greatest of Napoleon's 
mistakes. It cost France much blood and treasure, and 

How did Austria act ? What were the two principal battles fought ? 
With what result? — 10. What followed? Upon what conditions was 
peace made? — 11. What new enterprise was undertaken by Napoleon? 
By whom was the French army commanded, and when did it enter 
Mexico ? What is said of Maximilian ? 
20 



230 FRANCE. 

none of the objects for which it was undertaken were ever 
realized. 

12. From the early part of his reign the bad faith of Na- 
poleon towards Pope Pius IX. was apparent. The grasping 
dishonesty of Victor Emmanuel, w^ho grew at the expense of 
his weaker neighbors, met with his silent approbation. In 
September, 1860, ''the Pope's temporal sovereignty disap- 
peared with the flag that was lowered on the crumbling 
walls of Ancona-/' and just ten years after that event the 
star of Napoleon set forever behind the black clouds that 
overhung the disastrous field of Sedan' 1 

13. On withdrawing his army from Mexico, the French 
Emperor looked around for some fresh enterprise. The 
boundaries of France might, perhaps, be enlarged, and he 
cherished the idea of a war with Prussia. But it did not 
come in a moment. The great Industrial Exhibition of 
Paris, in 18GT, brought the King of Prussia and Count 
Bismarck to that gay capital. Some of the ablest military 
men of Germany visited the northeastern portions of France, 
and made a thorough study of the country and its resources. 
By and by such knowledge would become very useful. 

14. The distracted Spaniards were searching over Europe 
for a king, and they chanced upon a certain Prince Leopold, 
of Hohenzollern, whom they invited to rule over them. He 
was a kinsman to the King of Prussia. Napoleon objected 
to him as a candidate for the Spanish throne. It was a 
trifling affair, but grave complications arose. France de- 
clared war against Prussia in July, 1870. The Emperor 
joined the army at Metz, but it was soon discovered that he 
was really unprepared for a great campaign. He found him- 
self at the head of only about half as many troops as he had 
expected.* Supplies of every description, even of food and 
money, were wanting. But, prepared or otherwise, he 
must now meet the terribly armed and disciplined hosts of 
Germany. 

* Only about two hundred and twenty thousand ; twice that number 
should have been ready. 

What is said of the Mexican war and Napoleon? — 12. What was 
Napoleon's conduct towards Pius IX. ? AVhat occurred just ten years 
after the fall of Ancona? — 13. What scheme had the French Emperor 
in view after withdrawing his army from Mexico? What is said of 
the great Industrial Exhibition of Paris in 1867 ? — 14. Give the cir- 
cumstances that led to the Franco-Prussian war. When did France 
declare hostilities? Was Napoleon really prepared for a great cam- 
paign ? 



FRANCE. 281 

15. The first engagement was at Saarbriick, where a small 
force of Prussians fell back before the advancing French. 
But no use could be made of this success, and in two short 
weeks four hundred and fifty thousand perfectly equipped 
Germans stood face to face with the rash and ill-prepared 
forces of France. The crash of arms and the thunder of 
artillery told of woful destruction and the rage and struggle 
of contending thousands. An overwhelming force of Ger- 
mans, under the Crown Prince, defeated the French on 
August 4th at Weis'senburg. France was invaded. The 
victors pushed on rapidly towards Worth, where Marshal 
MacMahon* was striving to draw his scattered forces to- 
gether. He was surprised in the early morning by a force 
far outnumbering his own, for the Germans soon had a 
million of men in the field. The French fought with des- 
perate courage, but were defeated, and MacMahon was 
obliged to fall back. 

16. Napoleon was filled with dismay at this accumulation 
of disasters. He was at Metz. There he vainly strove to 
hasten the concentration of his whole army ; but at every 
point his plans were frustrated by the rushing flood of armed 
Germans who overran the country, and dashed all his com- 
binations into hopeless ruin. He made over the command 
of the army at Metz to Marshal Bazaine. It was not two 
weeks since the first blow had been struck, and already the 
war was lost beyond all hope of recovery. The whole Ger- 
man army was now in France. 

17. Bazaine was hemmed in at Metz by two German 
armies, and vainly attempted to escape. He fought bloody 
and indecisive battles at Rezonville and Gravelotte. But 
he was obliged to withdraw his disheartened troops to the 
shelter of the forts.f MacMahon was ordered to hasten 
from Chalon and relieve Bazaine. He had only one hundred 
and forty thousand exhausted and poorly equipped men, but 
he bravely set out on what he considered a desperate enter- 
prise. Two German armies fell in with MacMahon in the 
course of his march towards Metz, and he was forced to 

* He was born in France, in 1808. He is of Irish descent, 
t Bazaine, with his whole army of one hundred and seventy thousand 
men, capitulated in October. 

15. Where did the first engagement take place? With what result? 
Where were the French defeated on August 4th ? Describe the battle 
of Worth. — 16. How did Nap#leon now exert himself, and with what 
result ? Who commanded the French at Metz ?— 17. What is said of 
Bazaine's position at Metz ? What was MacMahon ordered to do ? 



232 FRANCE. 

retreat northward to the town of Sedan. A message was 
sent to the unfortunate Emperor, who arrived there late at 
night, and walked almost alone from the railway station into 
the place where the crowning agony of his career was to be 
endured. 

18. The French occupied a range of heights which over- 
look Sedan. The Germans, in overwhelming numbers, had 
gathered themselves around this position, and advanced to 
the attack before daybreak. The French stood their ground. 
Early in the action, however, Marshal MacMahon was struck 
down by a bursting shell, and as they bore the faithful vet- 
eran from the field he was met by Napoleon, who spoke 
a few kind words. It was their final parting. In vain did 
the French, with heroic courage, maintain for a time the 
hopeless struggle. One by one their positions were carried 
by the indefatigable Germans. The vanquished flung out 
a flag of truce. Napoleon surrendered himself to the King 
of Prussia, and the French commander, General Wimpffen, 
who succeeded MacMahon, made the best terms he could for 
his shattered forces. Eighty-three thousand Frenchmen laid 
down their rifles and surrendered on September 1st, 1870. 
No such shame had ever fallen upon the arms of France. 

19. With the disaster at Sedan perished the government 
of Napoleon III. He now disappears from history.* The 
Parisians, who, a few weeks before, had shouted, " On to 
Berlin," deposed their hapless Emperor and erected a Re- 
public. The road to Paris was open, but the new govern- 
ment resolved on a stern defence. Several German armies 
marched on the capital, surrounded it completely, and, after 
a siege of four months, Paris was given over to the enemies 
of France. The countless hosts of Germany marched in 
triumph through its most magnificent streets. A treaty 
terminated their occupation, but not the miseries of Paris. 
The wretched Communists seized the devoted city and bade 
defiance to the republican government. For many weeks a 
French army, under Marshal MacMahon, besieged and shelled 
the capital. At last an entrance was forced. The fiendish 
insurgents were crushed, but not before they had destroyed 
some of the finest buildings in Paris and slaughtered many 

* He afterwards joined his family in England, and died in 1873. 

To what town, however, was he obliged to retreat ? What is said of 
Napoleon? — 18. Describe the battle of Skedan. — 19. What happened to 
Napoleon III. after the battle of Sedan? What is said of the siege of 
Paris and the Germans? What did the Communists do? 



FRANCE. 233 

innocent prisoners, — among others, several Jesuit Fathers 
and the illustrious Archbishop Darboy. 

20. France was terribly punished for the blunder of Na- 
poleon III. The final terms of peace with Germany, known 
as the Treaty of Frankfort, were signed May 10th, 18tl. 
France, bleeding and humbled, had to give up the provinces 
of Alsace and Lorraine, and pay an indemnity of five billions 
of francs. It was an enormous burden. But once more the 
marvellous ability of France to recover from military and 
pecuniary disaster astonished the world. Thiers was now 
President of the Republic, and within the appointed time he 
was able to discharge in full the huge claims of Germany. 

21. The aged Thiers resigned the Presidency in May, 
18t8, and was succeeded by Marshal MacMahon, the con- 
queror of the Communists, and the leader in many a bold 
and desperate conflict. Under his faithful guidance, France 
continued to grow in prosperity. MacMahon resigned his 
office in 1879, and was succeeded by Grevy, the present Presi- 
dent of the French Republic. 

22. The recent unjust re-enactment of obsolete codes 
against the Jesuit Fathers and other Religious Orders 
proves, however, that in name only is France a republic. 
Liberty is dead where impiety and fanaticism rule. It seems 
that the great land of St. Louis is going through a course of 
purification ; but the Almighty Ruler of nations alone knows 
what will be the result. 

23. Under the present constitution of France there are 
two legislative bodies — the Chamber of Deputies and the 
Senate. Every citizen of twenty-one years of age is entitled 
to vote at an election. Any citizen of twenty-five may be a 
Deputy ; any citizen of forty may be a Senator. The legis- 
lators receive payment for their services. The President is 
the head of the government. He is elected for seven years, 
and the Senate and Chamber of Deputies meet in national 
assembly. The President appoints his ministers, and they 
are responsible to the Chambers. 

24. Ninety-eight per cent, of the French people are Catho- 

20. Mention the final terms of peace between France and Germany. 
Who was the first President of the new French Kepublic ? What did 
he pay ?— 21. Who succeeded Thiers ? When did MacMahon resign ? 
Who is his successor ? — 22. What is said of the recent laws against the 
Religious orders? — 23. What are the legislative bodies oiP France? 
Who is entitled to vote ? At what age may a citizen be a Deputy ? A 
Senator? What is said of the President and his powers? — 24. Of what 
religion is the majority of the French ? 
20* 



234 FRANCE. 

lies, but all religions are equal in the eye of the law. Edu- 
cation made great progress during the reign of Napoleon III. 
and the rule of Thiers and MacMahon, but the republic is 
now doing its best to put fetters on knowledge. It is send- 
ing into exile the greatest and most devoted teachers of the 
nation. French law divides all landed possessions equally 
among the children of the owner ; and this arrangement has 
resulted in an extraordinary multiplication of proprietors. 
Nearly two-thirds of the French householders are land- 
owners. 

25. The present century ias given many distinguished 
names to the literature of France. Among them are: 
Chateaubriand, De Stael, De Bonald, Be Maistre, Guizot, 
Thierry, Michelet, Thiers , Ber anger, De Tocqueville, La- 
martine, Hugo, Feval, Lacordaire,"^ Montalemhert, and Du- 
panloup. 

* See Biography of Eminent Personxiges. 

Are all religions equal ? What is remarked of education ? How does 
the French law divide landed possessions, and what is the result ? — 25. 
Has the present century added any distinguished names to French liter- 
ature ? Name some of the great French writers of this age. 



BOOK YIL 
ENQLAND. 



CHAPTER I. 



ENGLAND FROM THE CONQUEST BY THE ROMANS.— 
B. G. 55 TO A. B. 827. 

IN pursuing the history of England, the mind is forcibly 
struck with her gradual rise from the lowest state of 
barbarism to the highest point of civilization and refinement. 
Early records represent her as a weak and defenceless province 
prostrate at the feet of a foreign empire, while her present 
history exhibits her as a nation ranking among the highest 
in power, in the arts of peace and war, and with her commerce 
holding communion with the most distant regions of the 
earth. 

2. The authentic history of England can only be traced 
from its conquest by the Roman arms. A part of the 
island was invaded and conquered by Julius Caesar, fifty-five 
years before the Christian era. According to ancient writers, 
the first inhabitants were a tribe of Gauls or Celts, who had 
landed on the island from the neighboring continent. This 
is probable, as their language, manners, and mode of govern- 
ment bear a striking resemblance to each other. Although, 
comparatively speaking, in a state of barbarism, the inhabit- 
ants had made some slight progress in civilization and had 
gained some knowledge of agriculture previous to the in- 
vasion of the Romans. They lived in huts built in the 
forest, clothed themselves in the skins of beasts, and lived on 
the milk and flesh of their herds. They were not wholly 

Chapter I. — 1. In pursuing the history of England, how is the mind 
struck? How do early records represent her? Her present history? — 
2, What is said of the authentic history ? According to ancient writers, 
what were the inhabitants ? How did they live ? 

235 



236 ENGLAND. 

ignorant of the arts of war ; their armies, which consisted 
principally of foot soldiers, were equipped chiefly with the 
bow, the shield, and the lance. They had, moreover, a kind 
of war-chariot set with scythes, which caused dreadful 
slaughter when driven among their enemies. 

3. The religion of the ancient Britons was that of Druidism, 
a degrading form of superstition. Their priests, called Druids, 
possessed an unbounded control over the minds of the people. 
They taught the absurd doctrine of the transmigration of the 
soul, and offered human victims to appease the wrath of their 
gods. The oak was considered the peculiar residence of the 
deity, and at their religious solemnities both the priest and 
the people wore chaplets of oak, and covered the altars with 
the leaves. No vestiges of their sacred groves are now to 
be found, but the ruins of their temples which still remain 
show that they attained at an early period a considerable 
advancement in the mechanical arts. 

4. Such was the condition of Britain when it attracted 
the ambition of the Roman power. Julius Cassar, who had 
spread his conquests over Germany and Gaul, now cast his 
eye upon the isle of Britain. He was not allured by the 
prospect of wealth nor the richness of the soil, but led on by 
the ambition of carrying his arms into a region which before 
was considered inaccessible to the flight of the Roman eagle. 
With this view, having collected a numerous fleet, he em- 
barked with about ten thousand of his troops. On his 
arrival in sight of the coast he beheld it covered with Britons, 
prepared to dispute his landing. Not a little surprised on 
meeting with such determinate resistance, the Roman soldiers 
remained some time in doubtful suspense, until the standard- 
bearer of the tenth legion, leaping into the sea, advanced 
towards the shore, declaring that he would do his duty to 
Cassar and to Rome. 

5. His example was followed by his companions; they 
gained the shore and put themselves in order for battle. The 
undisciplined Britons, unable to cope with Roman legions, 
were routed and fled in confusion. Although discomfited for 
the present, they were not conquered, but rallying under 
their respective leaders, they soon obliged:' the invader to 
retire to the continent with all his forces. Caesar, however, 

Of what did then* armies consist? — 3. What is said of religion? 
What did they teach and offer? What is said of the oak? What do 
the ruins of their temples show ?— 4. What is said of Csesar ? By what 
was he allured ? — What is said of the Eoman soldiers ? — 5. What is 
said of the Britons ? What did they soon oblige the invader to do ? 



ENGLAND. 237 

was indefatigable in whatever he undertook. Returning the 
following year, he again invaded the island, forced the inhabi- 
tants to a subjection rather nominal than real, obliged them 
to give hostages for their future obedience, and again returned 
to Gaul. 

6. In the reign of Claudius, A. d. 44, the Roman arms were 
again directed towards the final subjugation of Britain. For 
nine years the famous Carac'tacus bravely defended his do- 
minions against the power of Rome ; but being at length 
defeated by the Roman general Ostorius, he was taken pris- 
oner and led captive to Rome, As he passed through the 
streets and beheld the splendor of the city, he was heard to 
exclaim, ''Alas! how is it possible that a people possessed 
of such magnificence at home, should envy Carac'tacus in 
his humble cottage in Britain." In a. d. 59, during the reign 
of the Emperor Nero, Sueto'nius was sent to conduct the 
war against the Britons. He defeated them under their cele- 
brated Queen Boadice'a, who put an end to her own life to 
avoid falling into the hands of the conquerors. But the final 
subjugation was effected during the reign of Titus by Agric'- 
ola, who conquered Galcagus, a distinguished Caledonian 
chief, and established the Roman dominion over all the south- 
ern part of the island, a. d. 78. 

T. In order to prevent the incursions of the barbarians 
from Caledonia, the Romans built three walls across the 
northern part of the island. The first was of turf, built by 
the order of the Emperor Adrian, extending from Solway 
Frith to the mouth of the river Tyne ; a second of wood, by 
Antoninus, between the frith of Clyde and Forth ; and a 
third of stone, by the Emperor Severus. In order to repel 
the irruptions of the Goths and other barbarous tribes from 
the North, who now found their way into the plains of Italy, 
the Romans were obliged to recall their legions from the 
protection of their more distant provinces. Impelled by this 
necessity, near the middle of the fifth century, they withdrew 
their forces entirely from Britain, leaving the inhabitants to 
their own resources, four hundred and sixty-five years after 
the landing of Julius Caesar. 

8. The northern inhabitants, the Scots and Picts, no longer 

What did Caesar again do?— 6. What took place in 44? What is 
said of Caractacusf What did he exclaim? In A. D. 59, what took 
place? When was the subjugation finally effected? — 7. To prevent the 
incursions of the barbarians, what did the Romans do ? By whom were 
they built ? When were their forces entirely withdrawn from Britain ? 
— 8. What did the northern inhabitants do ? 



238 ENGLAND. 

intimidated by the Roman legions, demolished the walls and 
carried their devastations over the southern part of the island. 
The Britons, unable to protect themselves, sent deputies so- 
liciting the aid of the Saxons, a warlike people inhabiting 
the north of Germany. The invitation was gladly accepted. 
A Saxon army of sixteen hundred men, under the command 
of two brothers, Hen' gist and Hor'sa, was sent to their re- 
lief; and the Scots and Picts were soon compelled to retire 
to their own dominions. The Saxons, having expelled the 
Scots and Picts, instead of returning to their own country, 
turned their arms against the Britons themselves, and send- 
ing for a reinforcement of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, they 
took possession of the country and reduced the inhabitants to 
subjection. From the Angles, the name England is derived. 

9. A series of contests ensued between the inhabitants and 
the invaders. Among the chieftains who opposed the Saxons, 
Arthur stands conspicuous. This renowned prince, whose 
name is famous in legend and history, is said to have defeated 
them in many signal engagements, without, however, being 
able to effect a deliverance of his country. After a contest 
of nearly one hundred and fifty years, the Saxons succeeded 
in establishing their power, and erected a Hep'tai^chy, or 
seven Saxon kingdoms, which continued for about two hun- 
dred years, and exhibited during that period an almost un- 
broken series of dissensions and sanguinary contests. At 
length Eg'bert, king of Wessex, a* man of superior talents, 
prudence, and valor, first united them in one kingdom, under 
the name of England, about the year 828. 

10. Previous to this period, the light of Christianity had 
shone upon the island. Towards the close of the sixth cen- 
tury, St. Augustine was commissioned by Pope St. Gregory 
the Great * to carry the glad tidings of salvation to the inhabi- 
tants of Britain. The Saint, accompanied by forty monks, 
set out for England ; and having arrived in the island, an- 
nounced to Eth/elhert, king of Kent, the object of his mis- 
sion. Ethelbert and his Queen, f attended by a vast retinue 

* This illustrious Pontiff died in 605. 

f Bertha, Queen of Kent, was the daughter of the king of Paris, and 
had previously embraced Christianity. 

To whom did the Britons apply for aid ? Having expelled the Scots 
and Picts, what did the Saxons do? — 9. Among the chieftains, who is 
conspicuous ? What is said of him ? After a contest of one hundred 
and fifty years, what did the Saxons establish ? What is said of Eg- 
bert? — 10. Towards the close of the sixth century what took place? 
What is said of St. Augustine ? 




ENGLAND. 

of their warlike subjects, kindly received the missionaries, 
and gave them an audience in the open air. St. Augustine 
explained the doctrines of the Catholic Church. The King 
shortly after this received Baptism publicly, and such was 
the salutary influence of his example that ten thousand of 
his subjects are said to have been baptized in a single day. 



CHAPTER II. 



FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE MONARCHY TO THE 
NORMAN CONQUEST.— A. D. 827 TO 1066. 

DURING the reign of Egbert the coast of Britain was 
visited by a formidable enemy in the Danes, who re- 
peatedly plundered and devastated the land, destroying every- 
thing by fire and sword, and continued to be a scourge to the 
country for upwards of two hundred years. 

2. Nothing of great importance occurred from the reign 
of Egbert to that of Alfred the Great, the sixth king of 
England. On coming to the throne he found himself sur- 
rounded on all sides by those inveterate enemies, the Danes. 
In one year he is said to have defeated them in eight dif- 
ferent battles, and succeeded in forcing them to retire from 
his dominions. But it was only for a short time ; returning 
with reinforcements they extended their ravages, and obliged 
Alfred to solicit a peace. In his distress the King was com- 
pelled to seek shelter for his safety by retiring into obscurity, 
and, thus disguised in the dress of a peasant, he passed sev- 
eral months in the cottage of a herdsman in the capacity of 
a servant. While in this humble abode he was ordered by 
the herdsman's wife to take care of some cakes that she had 
left baking at the fire. But Alfred, whose mind was other- 
wise employed, forgot the injunction he had received, and 
let the cakes burn ; for which neglect he was severely rep- 
rimanded by his mistress, who told him that he was always 
pleased to eat her cakes, though negligent in toasting them. 

3. From his retreat he carefully observed the movements 

What did he explain, and what followed ? 

Chapter II, — During the reign of Egbert, by whom was the coast 
of Britain visited? — 2. On coming to the throne, how did Alfred find 
himself? In this distress, what is related of him?— 3. From his re- 
treat, what did he carefully do ? 



240 ENGLAND. 

of the Danes, who from success had become remiss, and 
watched the earliest opportunity of again placing himself 
at the head of his followers, who had lately gained some 
slight advantage over their enemies. In order to ascertain 
the state of the Danish army, he disguised himself as a 
harper, entered their camp and played for the amusement 
of the soldiers ; he was even introduced to Guthrum, the 
Danish prince, in whose tent he remained for several days. 
Having thus learned in person the unguarded condition of 
the Danes, he returned to his followers, and placing himself 
at their head, he attacked the enemy by surprise, and routed 
them with great slaughter. 

4. Having subdued the enemies of his country and re- 
stored peace to his kingdom, Alfred turned his attention 
towards repairing the evils they had caused, and improving 
the moral condition of his subjects. He invited to his do- 
minions the most eminent scholars from all parts of Europe ; 
established schools for the instruction of his people ; founded 
the University of Oxford, composed a code of laws, and, 
according to many historians, he established the trial by 
jury, and translated various works into the Saxon language. 
It is recorded of Alfred that he executed forty corrupt judges 
in one year; and so exact and impartial were the police that 
he even suspended gold bracelets by the highway, and no 
one was found to lay a rapacious hand upon them. 

5. He usually divided his time into three equal parts ; one 
of which was employed in study and devotion ; a second in 
the discharge of business ; and the third in sleep and recre- 
ating his body by exercise and diet : these divisions he ex- 
actly measured by burning tapers of equal length. Alfred 
has been justly regarded by all subsequent historians as one 
of the wisest and most illustrious princes that ever adorned 
the English throne. He was distinguished equally for his 
private virtues and his public character, justly reputed the 
greatest writer, warrior, legislator, and statesman of his age. 
He was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed the Elder , 
A. D. 901. Edward inherited much of the military spirit of 
his father, and his reign was almost one continued contest 
with the Danes and Northumbrians. 

6. Edward was succeeded by his brother At'helstan, a 

In order to ascertain the state of the Danish camp, what did he do ? — 
4. Having subdued his enemies, what did Alfred do? What is recorded 
of him ? — 5. How did he divide his time ? For what was he distin- 
guished ? By whom was he succeeded ? What is said of Edward ? — 6. 
By whom was Edward succeeded ? 



ENGLAND. 241 

prince of great abilitj^; he carried on a successful war against 
the Danes, Scots, and Northumbrians ; strengthened and 
enlarged his kingdom, caused the Scriptures to be translated 
into the Saxon language, and enacted a law conferring the 
title of thane, or gentleman, on every merchant who should 
make three voyages to the Mediterranean Sea. 

7. Edmund, his brother, succeeded to the throne. The 
reign of this king was short, and his death tragical. As he 
was celebrating a festival in Gloucester, the notorious robber 
Leolf, whom Edmund had banished, entered the hall where 
the King was dining, and took his seat among his attendants ; 
being ordered to leave the apartment, he refused to obey ; 
upon this Edmund rose and seized him by the hair ; Leolf, 
drawing his dagger, killed the King upon the spot. Edmund 
was succeeded by his brother Edred, whose reign was dis- 
tinguished by the final subjection of Northumbria. He had 
for one of his principal advisers St. Dun'stan, the learned 
and venerable Abbot of Glastonbury. The King deposited 
with him all his treasures and the title of his lands, and 
earnestly besought him to accept the vacant bishopric of 
Winchester, which preferment he declined. Edred, whose 
constitution was naturally weak, expired in the tenth year 
of his reign, and left the throne to Edwin. 

8. Edwin, or Edwy, is generally represented by cotem- 
porary writers as a prince of a profligate character, whose 
reign would scarcely be worthy of notice were it not for 
several disputed points which occupy a considerable space 
in some of our modern historians. Elgiva, a lady of high 
birth, conceiving the design of securing for herself, or 
daughter, the dignity of queen, and with the view of cap- 
tivating Edwin's affections, one or the other, was constantly 
in his company. On the day of his coronation, after the ban- 
quet was over, Edwin hastily left the hall where his nobles 
were seated, and repaired to the company of Elgiva and her 
daughter. His nobles, considering his departure as an in- 
sult, appointed the Bishop of Litchfield and the Abbot of 
Glastonbury, in the name of the whole assembly, to go and 
recall the King. They found him in a most unbecoming situ- 
ation with Elgiva and her daughter, and, having placed the 
crown upon his head, they conducted him back into the hall. 

What were his principal acts? — 7, Who succeeded to the throne? 
Relate the circumstances of his death. By whom was he succeeded ? 
To whom did Edred leave the throne?— 8. How is Edwin rex)re- 
sented? What is said of El-^iva? On the day of his coronation, what 
is said of Edwin ? What did his nobles do ? 
21 Q 



242 ENGLAND. 

9. Shortly after this, St. Dunstan was banished from the 
kingdom at the instigation of Elgiva, and Edwin was 
married. This event, it was natural to expect, would put 
an end to his amorous connections with Elgiva. Whether 
on that occasion she was sent home to her husband, or com- 
mitted to the care of her relations, does not appear ; but the 
King, instigated by his passions, or by her solicitations, 
carried her off by force, and placed her on one of the royal 
farms. Archbishop Odo undertook to remove the scandal 
by enforcing the laws prescribed against women of aban- 
doned character. Through his influence she was removed 
from the farm and banished to Ireland. 

10. In the second year of his reign, the Mercians having 
rejected his authority, Edwin marched against them in per- 
son, but was defeated, and fled with precipitation into 
Wessex. Elgiva, who had returned from banishment, accom- 
panied him on his flight. At Gloucester she fell into the 
hands of the insurgents, who put her to death in a most 
cruel manner. That she was not married to Edwin, at least 
at the time of his coronation, will appear evident by consult- 
ing the original extracts from the historians of that period, 
to be found transcribed in Lingar^d^s notes to his History of 
England. ( Vol. 3, page 311.) 

11. Edwin died shortly after the Marcian war, and was 
succeeded by his brother Edgar, a. d. 959. One of the first 
acts of the new monarch was to recall from exile the Abbot 
of Glastonbury, who received episcopal consecration, and 
was appointed to the bishopric of Worcester, but was after- 
wards translated to the metropolitan see of Canterbury. 
The reign of Edgar was rendered memorable for being the 
period in which England was freed from wolves ; by 
ofl'ering a reward for each head, he produced such diligence 
in the search of them that the race shortly disappeared. 

12. Hearing of the extraordinary beauty of Elfrida, 
daughter of the Earl of Devonshire, he sent his favorite 
Athelwold to ascertain if her beauty corresponded with the 
report. Athelwold was so completely overcome by the 
charms of Elfrida, that he resolved, if possible, to espouse 
her himself. Accordingly on his return he represented to 
the King that her beauty had been greatly exaggerated, and 

9. Shortly after this, what took place? What did Odo undertake? 
— 10. In the second year of his reign, what took place? AVhat is said 
of Elgiva? What will appear evident? — 11. What was one of the first 
acts of Edgar ? For what is his reign memorable ? — 12. Hearing of the 
beantv of Elfrida, what did he do? What is related of Athelwold? 



E N GLAND. 243 

that she was not handsome ; but on account of her wealth, 
he thought she would be a suitable match for an Earl, and 
thus obtained the King's permission to marry her. Having 
afterwards discovered the treachery, Edgar, resolving to be 
avenged, brutally murdered Athelwold with his own hand 
while hunting, and shortly afterwards espoused Elfrida. 

13. Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward, surnamed 
the Martyr, in consequence of his having been assassinated 
at the instigation of his step-mother, Elfrida, who was in- 
duced to this crime for the purpose of procuring the crown 
for her own son. 

Ethelred II. next ascended the throne. Historians have 
given him the surname of Unready, from his want of prompt- 
ness when called to duty. He was a weak and inactive prince. 
During his reign the Danes again invaded the kingdom under 
Sweyn their king. Ethelred fled to Normandy, leaving the 
kingdom in the hands of the invaders. The people, thus 
left without a leader, quietly acknowledged the Danish 
sovereign; but on the death of Sweyn, Ethelred was again 
restored. After an unfortunate reign of thirty-five years, 
Ethelred died, leaving the throne to his son Edmund, sur- 
named Ironside, on account of his great strength and valor; 
but courage and abilities were unable to save his declining 
countr}^ 

14. Canu'te, the son of Sweyn, having succeeded to the 
throne of Denmark, asserted his claim to the crown of Eng- 
land, invaded the country with a powerful army, and com- 
pelled the English monarch to divide his dominions with 
him. In a month after this event, Edmund was murdered 
at Oxford by the treachery of Edric, his brother-in-law, and 
Canute was acknowledged sole monarch of England. He 
was one of the most powerful rulers of his time, and received 
the appellation of Great, from his talents and the success of 
his name. The early part of his life was stained with acts 
of cruelty, but the latter part was distinguished for mildness 
and benevolence. After a reign of eighteen years, he died 
much lamented by his subjects. 

15. Canute was succeeded by his son Har'old, whose prin- 
cipal amusement was the chase ; he received the surname of 

What was his end? — 13. By whom was Edgar succeeded? What 
was his end? Who next ascended the throne? Who invaded the 
kingdom? What became of Ethelred? What did the people do? By 
whom was Ethelred succeeded? — 14. What is said of Canute? What 
was he ? By what was his early life stained ? — 15. By whom was Can- 
ute succeeded ? 



244 ENGLAND. 

Barefoot, from his swiftness in running. He was a prince 
of a weak and profligate character. He reigned only three 
years, and was succeeded by his brother Hardicanute, the 
last of the Danish kings, whose reign was only distinguished 
for his cruelty and vices. 

16. As the late king left no issue, the English availed 
themselves of this opportunity to shake off the Danish yoke, 
and again restored the Saxon line in the person of Edward, 
the brother of Ironside. Edward was distinguished for the 
mildness of his disposition and for his personal virtues. 
After his death he was canonized by the Pope, and received 
the surname of the Confessor. 

By the death of Edward, England was replunged into all 
the miseries of war. As he died without issue, the English 
crown was claimed by several competitors, among Avhom 
Harold, son of the famous Earl of Godwin, and William 
Dalie of Normandy, were the most powerful. Harold, how- 
ever, being present at Edv^ard's death, quietly stepped into 
the vacant throne, and was joyfully acknowledged by the 
whole nation. William of Normandy resolved to assert his 
claim to the crown of England by force of arms. Having 
collected a numerous fleet, he sailed from St. Valena, in 
France, and landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, with an army of 
sixty thousand men. 

17. He was met by Harold with an army equally nu- 
merous. The night previous to the engagement the two 
armies had pitched their camps in sight of each other, and 
waited with impatience for the return of the morning. As 
soon as the day dawned, they were drawn out in array, and 
awaited the signal for the combat. The two monarchs ap- 
peared at the head of their armies, William on horseback, 
and Harold on foot, in the centre of the host. The memo- 
rable battle of Hastings followed. Long and bloody was the 
contest. At length the valor of the English yielded, and 
victory declared in favor of the Normans ; the nation sub- 
mitted to the sceptre of William, who in consequence was 
called the Conqueror. 

What is said of him? — 16. As the king left no issue, what took 
place ? How was Edward distinguished ? By whom was the sceptre 
claimed? What did Harold do? What did William resolve?— 17. 
The night previous to tlie engagement, what is said of the armies? Of 
the two monarchs ? Describe the battle. 



ENGLAND. 245 



CHAPTER III. 

THE NORMAN FAMILY; WILLIAM /., THE CONQUEROR ; 
WILLIAM II. ; HENRY I.; STEPHEN OF DLOIS. — FROM 
A. D. 1066 TO 1154. 

AFTER the battle of Hastings the spirit of the English 
was broken ; city after city submitted to the con- 
queror, until he found himself firmly seated on the English 
throne. 

Though William was a sovereign possessed of great abil- 
ities as a statesman and a warrior, yet many of his acts 
have stamped upon his reign the blot of cruelty and oppres- 
sion. He was remarkable in his person, being tall and well 
proportioned, and possessed of such strength that few per- 
sons of that age were found who could bend his bow or 
wield his arms. 

2. As was natural to expect, he entertained a partiality 
for his Norman followers, and advanced them to all the 
posts of honor and distinction — a measure which did not 
fail to excite the disaffection of the English subjects, who 
made several attempts to throw off the yoke ; but their 
endeavors were fruitless, and only tended to tighten the 
chains of their bondage. He endeavored, in a manner, to 
abolish the English language by causing the youths through- 
out the kingdom to learn the French tongue. No other 
language was used at court and among the more fa& aion- 
able society ; hence proceeded that mixture of French words 
which we find at present in the English tongue. Being 
much addicted to the pleasure of the chase, he reserved to 
himself the exclusive privilege of killing game throughout 
the kingdom, and formed the New Forest by depopulating 
a tract of land nearly thirty miles in circuit. One of the 
most useful acts of his reign was the completing the Dooms- 
day Book, which contained a register of all the estates of 
his kingdom. 

3. His domestic repose was somewhat imbittered by the 
disunion of his three sons, who resided in a castle in Nor- 
mandy. He did all that lay in his power to compromise 

Chapter III. — 1. After the battle of Hastings, what is said of the 
English ? Of William ? In his person ?— 2. What did he entertain ? 
What did he endeavor to abolish ? What was one of the most useful 
acts of his reign ? — 3. What is said of his domestic repose ? 
21* 



246 ENGLAND. 

their differences without effect. His unnatural son, Robert, 
openly revolted and declared war against his father. William 
besieged him in the castle of Gerheroy, where many en- 
counters took place, resembling more the combats of chivalry 
than the contests of hostile armies. In one of these it hap- 
pened that Robert encountered the King himself, who was 
concealed by a helmet. A fierce personal combat ensued. 
At length the young prince wounded and dismounted his 
father. The King called out for assistance ; Robert, hearing 
his voice, recognized his parent ; and, struck with remorse, 
he alighted from his horse, threw himself at the feet of 
William, and implored his pardon. Then assisting him to 
mount, he saw him return to his camp. A reconciliation 
soon after took place through the interposition of his Queen, 
Matilda, whom William tenderly loved. Having reached 
the sixty-third year of his age, William died on the con- 
tinent, at the monastery of St. Gervais, in the thirty-first 
year of his conquest of England. 

4. William 11. , surnamed Bufus, from his red hair, suc- 
ceeded his father in the English throne, a. d. 1087. His 
reign was marked by many acts of cruelty and perfidy. As 
he was hunting in the New Forest, he was accidentally shot 
by Sir Walter Tyrrel, who had aimed an arrow at a stag, 
after a reign of thirteen years. 

5. Henry I., the younger brother of William, taking ad- 
vantage of the absence of his brother Robert, the rightful 
heir, who was then on a crusade to the Holy Land, ascended 
the throne. Robert, on his return, made preparations to 
gain, by force of arms, the crown of England, of which he 
had been deprived during his absence. An accommodation, 
however, was effected between the two brothers; but Henry, 
shortly after this, infringed upon the treaty, and made war 
upon Normandy, the conquest of which he effected after the 
severe fought battle of Tenchelray, where Robert was taken 
prisoner. This unfortunate prince was detained in custody 
during the remainder of his life, which lasted twenty-eight 
years, in a castle in Wales ; leaving a melancholy proof of 
how feeble are the barriers which the nearest ties of kindred 
can afford to the raging impulse of ambition. Henry was 
rendered inconsolable in the latter part of bis life by the 

Of his son Robert ? What did William do ? On one occasion what 
happened? When did he die? — 4. By Avliom was William succeeded? 
What was his end ? — 5. Who next ascended the throne ? What is said 
of Robert ? Shortly after this what was done by Henry ? How long 
was Robert detained a prisoner ? 



ENGLAND. 247 

loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from 
Normandy ; after the news of this accident he was never 
seen to smile. 

Henry was, in many respects, an able and accomplished 
sovereign, but ambitious and ungrateful. 

6. On his death he left the throne to his daughter, Ma- 
tilda ; but Stephen, Earl of Blois, and nephew to the late 
King, a noble of great ability and unbounded ambition, 
seized the crown. Matilda immediately determined to as- 
sert her right by force of arms, and, raising an army, she 
defeated Stephen and took possession of the throne ; but by 
a strange occurrence of events, which are tedious and by no 
means interesting, Stephen, in his turn, having defeated her 
and compelled her to leave her dominions, again ascended 
the throne. Henry, the son of Matilda, resolving to main- 
tain his rightful inheritance to the English crown, invaded 
the country at the head of a powerful army ; but an accom- 
modation ensued by which it was agreed that Stephen should 
reign until his death, after which the crown should fall to 
Henry. 



CHAPTER IV. 



FAMILY OF PLANTAG'ENET; HENRY IT. ; RICHARD 1.; 
JOHN; HENRY III.; EDWARD I.; EDWARD II.; EDWARD 
III.; RICHARD II.— FROM A. D. \\U TO 1399. 

HENRY II., in whom were united the families of the 
Saxon and Norman monarchs, now ascended the British 
throne, at the age of twenty-one. By his marriage with 
EVeanor, heiress of Guien'ne, he possessed by inheritance 
nearly half of France. The most important achievement of 
this monarch's life was his unjust invasion and conquest of 
Ireland, which country has remained, more or less, in a state 
of unhappy subjection to the English crown down to the 
present time. During the early part of his reign the famous 
Thomas a Becket, a man of extraordiuary abilities, held the 
first place in the favor of the King, who promoted him to the 

6. To whom was the throne left? What did Matilda determine? 
Who invaded the country ? What ensued ? 

Chapter IV. — W^ho now ascended the British throne? Whom did 
he marry? What Avas the most important achievement? What is said 
of Thomas a Becket ? 



248 ENGLAND. 

office of High Chancellor, and made him preceptor of the 
young princes. Becket displayed a magnificence equal to his 
dignity ; his table was free of access to every person who had 
business at court ; he took precedence of all the lay barons, 
and among his vassals he numbered upwards of a hundred 
knights. 

2. Henry lived on terms of the greatest familiarity with 
his Chancellor, and seemed to have resigned into his hands 
the government of his dominions. About this time it hap- 
pened that the See of Canterbury became vacant, and Becket, 
on account of his situation, was pointed to as the person most 
likely to fill it. Accordingly the King sent a message to the 
Chancellor, who was then on the continent, to repair to Eng- 
land, intimating to him at the same time that in a few days 
he would be Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket replied that 
if the King were serious he begged permission to decline the 
preferment, because it would be impossible for him to perform 
the duties of that station, and at the same time to retain the 
favor of his sovereign. But Henry was inflexible, and in- 
sisted on his accepting the preferment. Becket at length, 
much against his own judgment, was induced to acquiesce. 
Shortly after his return to England he was ordained priest, 
and in a few days received episcopal consecration. 

3. Becket, whose private life had always been marked by 
the strictest integrity and morality, now began to think more 
seriously of acquiring those virtues that more particularly 
adorn the episcopal character. The ostentatious parade and 
worldly pursuits of the Chancellor were instantly renounced 
by the Archbishop. The train of knights and noblemen who 
were accustomed to attend him were exchanged for a few 
companions, selected from among the most virtuous and 
learned of the clergy. His diet was abstemious and his 
charities were abundant. His time was occupied in prayer, 
study, and in the discharge of his highly responsible duties ; 
and as he found it difficult to unite the functions of his pres- 
ent station with those of Chancellor, he resigned this latter 
office into the hands of the King. 

4. The good understanding which for some time subsisted 
between the Primate and the King was not destined to be 
of long continuance. Henry began to make encroachments 
on the rights of the Church and the clergy ; sought to deprive 

What did he display? — 2, About this time what happened? AVhat 
message did the king send? How did Becket reply? What is said of 
Henry?— 3. What is now said of Becket? How was his time occu- 
pied ? — i. What did Henry begin to do ? 



ENGLAND. 249 

them of the privilege of being tried for offences in the eccle- 
siastical courts, which privilege they had enjoyed from a very 
early period, and required that a clergyman, after he had been 
degraded by the sentence of his spiritual judges, should be 
delivered into the custody of a lay officer to be punished by 
the lay tribunal. To this it was replied, that it would be 
placing the English clergy on a footing inferior to their 
brothers in any other Christian country. It was repugnant 
to those liberties which the King had sworn to preserve at 
his coronation, and that it violated the first principle of law, 
by requiring that the same individual should be twice pun- 
ished for the same offence. 

5. The King grew indignant at the opposition of the 
Bishops, and, in order to bring the matter to an issue, sum- 
moned a great council to meet at Clarendon. Here, by en- 
treaties, threats, and intimidation, he prevailed on the Bishops 
to sign what is called the " Constitution of Clarendon.^^ As 
several articles in this constitution were derogatory to the 
rights of the Church, and infringed on the papal jurisdiction, 
by prohibiting appeals to the Sovereign Pontiff, without the 
King's consent, the Bishops, in signing it, had sacrificed their 
conscience. 

6. As the Primate returned, he meditated in silence on his 
conduct in the council, and saw the error into which intimi- 
dation had betrayed him ; he bewailed his fault and imme- 
diately retracted his assent. His conduct inflamed anew the 
indignation of Henry. At length the Archbishop thought 
it prudent to withdraw for a season from England, and re- 
tired into France. 

7. A reconciliation was soon after effected between Henry 
and the Primate, who again returned to England, carrying 
letters of suspension or excommunication from the Pope, 
against the Bishops of York, London, and Salisbury. The 
Bishops, on receiving these letters, burst into violent com- 
plaints against the Primate, and hastened into Normandy to 
seek redress from the King. Henry, in a moment of irrita- 
tion, exclaimed, " Of all the cowards who eat at my table, is 
there not one who will free me from this turbulent priest ? " 
Four of his knights who were present, taking this for the 

What did he require? To this what was replied? — 5. What did 
the king summons? Here what did he prevail on the bishops to 
sign? What were several articles in this constitution? — 6. As the 
primate returned, what is said of him ? What did he think proper to 
do? — 7. What was soon after effected? What did the bishops do on re- 
ceiving these letters ? What did Henry exclaim ? 



250 ENGLAND. 

royal approbation, bound themselves by oath to carry off or 
murder the Primate. 

8. They immediately set out for England, hastened to 
Canterbury, and entering the palace of the Archbishop, they 
upbraided him with insolence to the King. As they left his 
apartment, the hour for Vespers arrived, and the undaunted 
prelate went unattended to the cathedral. He was ascending 
the steps of the choir when the wretched assassins entered 
the church. One of them cried out, " Where is the traitor ? " 
To this no answer was returned. But when another asked, 
" Where is the Archbishop ? " the prelate replied, " Here is 
the Archbishop, but no traitor." Upon this one of the 
murderous ruffians aimed a blow which wounded him on the 
head. As the saintly and heroic man felt the blood trickling 
down his face, he clasped his hands, and bowing down, he 
said, '' In the name of Christ and for the defence of His 
Church, I am ready to die." In this posture he turned to- 
wards his murderers, and under their repeated blows he sunk 
to the floor, at the foot of the altar of St. Benedict. 

9. Thus perished St. Thomas a Becket, a martyr to duty 
and religion. His death was the triumph of his cause. The 
Church seemed to derive new vigor from the death of her 
champion. The first news of this event filled Henry with 
consternation and alarm ; he now lamented, when too late, 
the hasty expression that had led to the commission of so 
terrible a crime. But subsequent events caused the monarch 
to think more seriously on this transaction than at present. 
Some few years afterwards he beheld his ov»^n sons uniting 
in rebellion against him, in conjunction with his perfidious 
barons. Such things, he concluded, were not in the ordinary 
course of nature ; they could be no other than the effects of 
the divine wrath which he had enkindled by his persecution 
of the holy Archbishop: 

10. The name of the prelate had been lately enrolled by 
the Pope in the catalogue of the saints, and the fame of the 
miracles wrought at his shrine resounding through every 
part of Europe, Henry, to expiate his offence, resolved to 
make a pilgrimage to the tomb of the martyr. For this 

What did the four knights do ? — 8. As they left his apartment, what 
took place ? What did one of their number cry out ? What did the 
prelate reply? Upon this, what was done? In bowing down, what 
did he say ? — 9. What is said of Henry at the first news of this event ? 
Some years afterwards, what did he behold ? What did he conclude ? — 
10. What is said of the name of the prelate ? What did Henry resolve 
to do? 



ENGLAND. 251 

purpose he hastily set sail for England, and when he came 
within sight of Canterbury, he dismounted from his horse 
and walked, without any covering on his feet, towards the 
city. As he entered the gate, it was observed that his foot- 
steps were stained with blood. Without making any delay, 
he hastened to the cathedral, and there threw himself at the 
foot of the tomb, while the Bishop of London addressed the 
spectators. As soon as the prelate had concluded his dis- 
course, Henry arose and repaired to the chapter-house of the 
convent, where the monks, a few Bishops, and Abbots were 
assembled. Before them, the royal penitent on his knees, 
confessed his crime, and received on his shoulders, with a 
knotted cord, a few stripes from each. After this extraor- 
dinary act of humiliation he returned again to the shrine 
and spent the night in prayer. 

11. The latter part of his life was imbittered by the un- 
natural conduct of his sons, who joined in a second rebellion 
against their father, aided by the king of France. On- re- 
ceiving a list of those who had conspired to deprive him of 
his crown, the first name that caught his eye was that of his 
favorite son, John. He read no more, but returned the paper 
with a broken heart. At first he sank into a deep melancholy. 
This was followed by a raging fever, during which he called 
down the heaviest denunciations of heaven on his ungrateful 
children. He died in the fifty-eighth year of his age and 
thirty-fifth of his reign. Henry, in some respects, may be 
ranked among the ablest of the English monarchs. He pos- 
sessed distinguished abilities as a statesman and warrior. 
But his character was really contemptible, and his private 
life anything but edifying. His passion was said to be the 
raving of a madman — the fury of a w^ld beast. He was 
alternately the sport- of pride, anger, ambition, and duplicity. 

12. Richard I., surnamed Coeur de Lion, or the Lion- 
hearted, now ascended the throne, and endeavored to atone, 
in some measure, for his ungrateful conduct towards his 
father, by renouncing those who had assisted in the unnatural 
rebellion, and receiving into his favor the ministers of the 
former reign. Richard was a prince of a chivalrous and 
romantic turn of mind. Shortly after his accession to the 
throne, he engaged in the Crusades, and in conjunction with 

Relate what followed.— 11. What is said of the latter part of his life ? 
What are the circumstances of his death? When did he die? What 
is said of him? — 12. Who succeeded to the throne? In what did he 
engage ? 



252 ENGLAND. 

Philip Augustus of France, embarked on an expedition to the 
Holy Land. Here his personal valor was conspicuous in 
every engagenaent. He defeated the celebrated Saladin in 
the memorable battle of Ascalon, in which forty thousand 
Saracens were slain, and finally compelled him to conclude a 
treaty of peace. 

13. On his return homeward, being shipwrecked, he en- 
deavored to pass in disguise through Germany, but w^as 
discovered and detained a prisoner by the emperor, Henry 
YI., who released him, after a long confinement, on the 
payment of £300,000. Having regained his liberty, he re- 
turned to his own dominions, from which he had been absent 
for nearly four years. The year following, having laid siege 
to the castle of Chains, he received a wound of which he 
died, in the tenth year of his reign and the forty-second of 
his age. Richard has been styled the Achilles of modern 
times ; his achievements more resemble the deeds of a hero 
of 4'omance than those of a wise and political sovereign. 

14. John, the brother of Richard, succeeded to the throne. 
His reign is regarded as one of the most infamous in English 
history. His nephew, Arthur, the son of Geofi'rey, an elder 
brother, w^as the rightful heir to the crown. The young 
Prince happened to fall into the power of John, by whom 
he was basely murdered, lest at any future period he might 
assert his claim. This act of treachery excited universal 
disgust. Philip Augustus, of France, supported the claim 
of Arthur, and, to avenge his death, deprived the English 
monarch of his French possessions. 

15. John, although his Queen was yet alive, indulged a 
base passion for Isabella, daughter of Aymar, Count of 
Angouleme, a lady who had been already betrothed to the 
Count de la Marche, yet, by reason of her age, the marriage 
had not been consummated. Having procured a divorce 
from his own wife, he espoused Isabella. The Sovereign 
Pontiffs, during the Middle Ages, were frequently called on 
to interpose their spiritual power to shield the people from 
oppression, and to arrest the vices and check the passions of 
their rulers, and even the jurisprudence of that period acceded 
to the Pope, on some extraordinary occasions, the power of 
absolving the people from their allegiance to their sovereign. 

Whom did he defeat?— 13. On his return, what happened to him? 
What occasioned his death ? What is said of Richard ?— J 4. Who suc- 
ceeded to the throne ? What act of treachery did he commit ? Of what 
was he deprived ? — 15. What is now related "of John? What is said of 
the Sovereign Pontlfis ? 



ENGLAND. 263 

16. On this occasion, Innocent III. remonstrated with 
John without efifect. Another circumstance, which hap- 
pened at this tima, caused the Pope to put in execution the 
full extent of his spiritual power. It had been a custom 
from an early period, in England, to consult the King in the 
appointment of a bishop to fill any of the vacant sees. It 
happened at this time that the bishopric of Canterbury be- 
came vacant, and Lancton was chosen to fill it. The Pope 
thought proper to depart from the usual custom, and con- 
firmed the appointment without consulting the King, whose 
late conduct had given so much scandal to his subjects. John, 
highly incensed at this, sent two of his Knights to expel the 
monks from the convent, and vented his rage on all who had 
any hand in the instrument. For this infringement of his 
spiritual jurisdiction the Pope proceeded to place the kingdom 
under an Interdict, an instrument which was only resorted 
to on extraordinary occasions, and one calculated to strike 
the mind with sensations of awe. 

17. While it remained in force the nation was deprived of 
all the exterior exercises of religion ; the altars were despoiled 
of their ornaments ; the crosses, relics, pictures, and statues 
of the saints were laid on the ground and covered up ; the 
bells were removed from the churches ; Mass was celebrated 
with closed doors ; the laity partook of no religious rites 
except Baptism and Communion to the dying ; the dead 
were not interred in consecrated ground, and marriage was 
celebrated in the churchyard. 

18. John, at length overcome by the evils which he had 
brought on his kingdom, yielded his obstinacy, became recon- 
ciled to the Church, and, fearful of the invasion of the French 
monarch, he surrendered his crown to the Pope, from whom 
he consented to hold it as a vassal. In the meantime his 
natural disposition for tyranny seemed to increase. He de- 
spised his nobles, and sought every opportunity of infringing 
upon their privileges. The barons at length, unable to sup- 
port his tyrannical exactions, under the direction of Cardinal 
Lancton, the Primate, formed a confederacy against him. 
They met at Bvnnymede, and compelled him, after much 
opposition, to sign and seal the famous document called 
Magna Charta, which is even now regarded as the great 

16. Relate the circumstance which caused the Pope to put in exe- 
cution the extent of his spiritual power ? To Avhat did the Pope now 
proceed? — 17. While it remained in force, of what was the kingdom 
deprived? — 18. Fearful of the invasion of the French monarch, what 
did John do ? What is said of the barons ? Where did they meet ? 
22 



254 ENGLAND. 

bulwark of English liberty, and by which important liberties 
and privileges are secured to every order of men in the king- 
dom, A. D. 1215. John died the following year, after an 
odious reign of eighteen years, with scarcely a single virtue 
to redeem a thousand vices. 

His son, Henry III., succeeded to the throne at the age 
of nine years, under the guardianship of the Earl of Pem- 
broke. The history of this reign consists of little more than 
a recital of a series of internal contests between the King 
and his turbulent barons. Henry was a weak and timid 
prince ; gentle and mild in his disposition ; but he greatly 
displeased the nation by his partiality to foreigners. 

The barons, with the Earl of Leicester at their head, took 
up arms and compelled the King to resign his authority to 
twenty-four of their number, and having thus divided all 
the offices of the government among themselves, they disre- 
garded the privileges of the crown and trampled on the 
rights of the people. But the knights of the Shire, who 
now began to assemble separately from the lords, indignant 
at the usurpation of Leicester and his confederate barons, 
took up arms in favor of the King. A battle was fought at 
Lewes, in which the royal army was defeated, and the King, 
with his son Edward, was made prisoner. 

19. Leicester now compelled the King to ratify his author- 
ity by a solemn treaty ; assumed the character of regent, 
and called a parliament, consisting of two Knights from 
each shire, and deputies from the principal boroughs. From 
this period is generally dated the first outline of the present 
English House of Commons. Young Edward having at 
length regained his liberty, in conjunction with the Duke 
of Gloucester, took the field against Leicester, who was de- 
feated and slain in the famous battle of Evesham. Henry 
was again restored to the throne, but died shortly after this 
event, in the sixty-fourth year of his age and the fifty-sixth 
of his reign, a. d. 12Y2. 

20. Edward, who had early given indications of distin- 
guished military abilities, was absent on a crusade at the 
time of his father's death. On one occasion, as he sat in 
his tent, an assassin entered and aimed a poisoned arrow at 
his breast; he found means to ward off the blow, but re- 

What was he compelled to sign? AVhen did .John die? Who suc- 
ceeded? What is said of his history? What was he compelled to do by 
the barons? What battle was fought?— 19. What did Leicester now do? 
What is said of young Edward ? What is said of Henry ? — 20. What 
is said of Edward ? On one occasion what happened ? 



EXGLAXD. 255 

ceived a wound in his arm. His devoted Queen, Eleanor of 
Castile, saved his life, at the evident risk of her own, b}^ ex- 
tracting the poison by applying her mouth to the wound. 
He had advanced as far as Sicily on his return, when he re- 
ceived information of his father's death. 

21. On his arrival in England, he was received with joy 
by all classes of the people, and immediately turned his 
attention towards removing the disorders which filled the 
state during the preceding reign. Having restored order 
and tranquillity at home, he turned his arms towards the sub- 
jugation of "Wales, and having defeated and slain Llewe'lhm, 
the King, he p.nnexed that country to the English crown, 
and created his eldest son Prince of Wales, a title ,which at 
the present time distinguishes the eldest son of the English 
monarch. Edward was shortly afterwards made umpire in 
a dispute between Robert Bruce and John Ba'liol, respecting 
the succession of the Scottish throne. He adjudged the 
crown to Baliol, who engaged to hold it as a vassal of the 
English monarch. He, however, threw off his allegiance, 
and Edward invaded Scotland with a powerful army, defeated 
the Scots in the battle of Dunbar, subdued the kingdom, and 
carried Baliol captive to England. 

22. The Scots, who had unwillingly submitted to the yoke 
of subjugation, were roused to assert their independence 
through the influence of the renowned hero, Sir William 
Wallace ; but after a series of brilliant achievements their 
efforts failed for the present. The illustrious Wallace was 
basely betrayed into the hands of Edward, and put to death 
with barbarous cruelty. The Scots found, however, a more 
successful champion in the person of Robert Bruce, a grand- 
son of Baliol, who, after he had expelled the British from the 
country, was restored to the throne of his ancestors. Edward 
having made preparation for a second invasion of Scotland, 
died at Carlisle, in the thirty-fifth year of his reign. This 
English King was eminently distinguished as a legislator 
and warrior, but his cruelty towards the Jews, and his cold- 
blooded massacre of the bards of Wales, have stamped upon 
his memory an indelible blot of tyranny and rapacity. 

23. Edward II. succeeded his father to the throne, and 

21. Edward having restored tranquillity at home, what did he do ? 
Being made umpire between Bruce and Baliol, to whom did he adjudge 
the crown? What is said of Baliol? What did Edward do?— 22. By 
whom were the Scots roused to assert their independence? W^hat was 
the fate of Wallace ? In whom did they find a more successful cham- 
pion ? How was Edward distinguished ?— 23. What did Edward II. do ? 



256 ENGLAND. 

immediately invaded Scotland with an army of one hundred 
thousand men, which was met at Bannockburn by Robert 
Bruce, with thirty thousand. A dreadful conflict ensued, in 
which the English were signally defeated. Edward pos- 
sessed but few qualities to distinguish him as a sovereign ; 
he was mild in disposition, but weak and indolent, fond of 
pleasure, and allowed himself to be governed by unworthy 
favorites, which excited against him the turbulent spirit of 
his barons, and filled his reign with civil dissensions. 

24. Isabella, his queen, a woman of the most infamous 
character, fixed her affections upon Mortimer, a young and 
powerful baron, with whom she entered into a conspiracy 
against the King, and compelled him to resign in favor of 
his son. Edward was cast into prison, and barbarously 
murdered at the instigation of Isabella, in Berkeley Castle, 
A. D. 1328. 

25. Edward III. succeeded to the throne in the fourteenth 
year of his age. During his minority, a regency of twelve 
persons was appointed ; yet Mortimer and the infamous 
Queen maintained their power and exercised the chief control. 
Almost the first act of Edward, on coming of age, was to 
punish the murderers of his unhappy father. Mortimer was 
publicly executed. Isabella was confined in the castle of 
Risings, where she remained for twenty-eight years, a 
memorable example of blasted ambition. Edward's first 
expedition was against the Scots, whom he defeated with 
great slaughter in the battle of Hallidon Hill. 

26. He claimed the crown of France, which he pretended 
he inherited from his mother, and resolved to maintain it by 
force of arms, in opposition to Philip of Yalois, who had 
ascended the French throne. Having collected a powerful 
armament of two hundred and fifty sail, he departed from 
England, and having encountered a French fleet of four 
hundred ships on the coast of Flanders, he gained one of 
the most memorable naval victories recorded in history. The 
loss of the English is said to have been only four thousand 
men and two ships, while thirty thousand of the French fell 
in the engagement, with the loss of two hundred and thirty 
of their vessels. 

27. He then invaded the country at the head of thirty thou- 

What is said of him? — 24. What is said of Isabella, his queen? 
What was the fate of Edward? — 25. Who succeeded to the throne? 
What was his first act on comina: of age ? What was the fate of Morti- 
mer and Isabella?— 26. What did he claim? What did he do? What 
was the loss on both sides? — 27. What did he then do? 



ENGLAND. 257 

sand troops, and spread devastation wherever he advanced. 
He met the French monarch, who advanced to oppose, at the 
head of an army of one hundred thousand men, and defeated 
him in the famous battle of Cressy. This battle is rendered 
memorable for being the first in which the English made use 
of cannon ; also for being the scene in which Edward, the 
Black Prince — so called from the color of his armor— the 
King's eldest son, then in the sixteenth year of his age, com- 
menced his brilliant military career. While the battle raged 
in its greatest fury, a messenger was dispatched desiring that 
succor might be sent to the aid of the Prince. Edward re- 
plied to the messenger, " Go tell my son that I reserve for 
him the glory of this day ; he will be able, without my aid, 
to repel the enemy." Edward having taken the city of 
Calais, after a memorable siege, returned again to England. 

28. While the English monarch was conducting his con- 
quests on the continent, the Scots made an irruption into his 
dominions at home, but were defeated in a battle at Neville's 
Cross by Philippa, his heroic queen, and their king was led 
captive to London. 

John, who succeeded his father in the throne of France, 
resolved to expel the English from his dominions, and took 
the field with an army of sixty thousand men. He was met 
by the Black Prince and defeated in the memorable battle of 
Poictiers, in which he was made prisoner and conducted to 
London by the Prince, where he was detained a fellow-captive 
with David, the Scottish king. 

29. Edward, who in the early part of his life had acquired 
such brilliant military renown, towards the end of his reign 
sunk into indolence and indulgence, and before his death he 
had lost all his conquests withthe exception of Calais. The 
death of the Black Prince, whose heroic deeds were only sur- 
passed by the amiable virtues that adorned his mind, filled 
the nation with sorrow, and left his father disconsolate for 
the loss. The King only survived this event a few months ; 
he died in the sixty-fifth year of his age and fifty-first of his 
reign, a. d. 1377. 

30. Edward was one of the most illustrious princes of his 
age. His military achievements in France and Scotland, 

By whom was he met ? For what is the battle memorable ? While 
the battle raged, what was done ?— 28. While the English monarch, etc., 
what did the Scots do ? What battle was fought ? What did the king 
of France resolve ? By whom was he met ? Where was he conducted ? 
—29. What is now said of Edward ? When did he die ?— 30. What was 
Edward ? What is said of his military achievements ? 
22* R 



258 ENGLAND. 

though unjust in their object, cast a lustre on his reign and 
render it one of the most brilliant in English history. Daring 
his reign Chivalry was carried to its height in England. 
Edward himself and his son, the Black Prince, possessed 
in a high degree all the accomplishments of the knightly 
character. He instituted the order of the Garter, and also 
built the magnificent castle of Windsor. The French lan- 
guage was discontinued in courts of justice during his reign. 

31. Edward was succeeded by Richard II., son of the 
Black Prince, at the age of eleven years. During his 
minority the administration of the government was intrusted 
to his uncles, the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester ; 
of these, however, the Duke of Lancaster acted the most 
prominent part. In the early part of his reign the parlia- 
ment levied a poll-tax of three groats upon all over the age 
of fifteen years. This gave great dissatisfaction on account 
of its injustice in exacting as much from the poor as from 
the rich. 

32. The flame of insurrection spread through the kingdom. 
The insurgents found a leader in the person of Wat Tyler, a 
blacksmith by profession, who in a short time finding him- 
self at the head of one hundred thousand followers, led them 
to Smithfield, where the King invited him to a conference. 
His haughty demeanor here excited the indignation of one 
of the King's attendants, who struck him dead upon the spot. 
This rash act, committed in the presence of the mutineers, 
would have proved fatal to the King and his attendants, had 
it not been for the presence of mind displayed by the youth- 
ful Prince, who, riding up towards them while their bows 
were bent for execution, exclaimed, " What, my people ! will 
you kill your King ? I myself will be your leader ; follow 
me into the field, and you shall have what you desire." 

33. The flattering hopes which the nation had formed of 
Richard's future greatness from his conduct on this occasion, 
greatly declined as he advanced in years. The northern 
borders were thrown into disorder by the rivalship between 
the family of Percy, of the north of England, and the house 
of Douglas, of Scotland. A sanguinary battle was fought 
at Otterhurn, in which Percy, surnamed Hotspur, was taken 

What did he institute? What was discontinued? — 31. By whom 
was Edward succeeded? In the early part of his reign, what was 
done ?— 32. What followed ? Who was the leader of the insurgents ? 
What was the fate of Tyler ? Riding up to the insurgents, what did 
the king exclaim? — 33. What is said of the hopes the nation had 
formed of Richard ? Where was a battle fought ? 



ENGLAND. 259 

prisoner and Douglas slain. On this battle, it seems, is 
founded the celebrated ballad of Chevy Ghace. 

34. While Richard was absent in Ireland to quell an in- 
surrection in that country, the young Duke of Lancaster 
excited a revolt against his authority in England. The King, 
on his return, after undergoing a mock trial, was compelled 
to resign his crown ; while the Duke in the meantime 
ascended the throne under the title of Henry lY., a. d. 1399. 

The deposed monarch was imprisoned in the castle of 
Pomfret, where he was shortly afterwards put to death in 
the most cruel manner. 



CHAPTER Y. 

BRANCH OF LANCASTER: HENRY IV.; HENRY V.; HENRY 
VI.— FROM A. D. 1399 TO 1461. 

HENRY thus succeeded to the throne by the deposition 
and murder of his lawful sovereign, and to the exclu- 
sion of the rightful heir, Edward Mortimer, whose descend- 
ants, as we will see in the sequel, after a series of contests 
between the York and Lancaster families, succeeded in es- 
tablishing their disputed claim to the crown. Henry soon 
found that the diadem that glitters upon the brow of monarchs 
bears with it an empty name, and conceals beneath its splen- 
dor a thousand imbittering cares unknown to the man of the 
humbler walks of liffe. 

2. Scarcely was he seated on the throne when an insurrec- 
tion was raised against him, headed by Northumberland, and 
joined by the Scots under Douglas, and the Welsh under 
Owen Glendower; but they were defeated by the royal forces 
in a desperate battle fought at Shrewsbury. The latter part 
of his life was imbittered by the profligate conduct of his son, 
the Prince of Wales. On a certain occasion, one of his com- 
panions was indicted for some misdemeanor before the chief 
justice. Sir William Gascoigne. The young Prince, who 

What ballad was founded on it? — 34. What is said of Richard while 
absent in Ireland ? On his return, what took place ? What became of 
the deposed monarch ? 

Chapter V. — 1. What is said of Henry? What did he soon find? 
— 2. By whom was an insurrection headed ? What is said of the latter 
part of his life? What is related of Chief- Justice Gascoigne? 



260 ENGLAND. 

was present, became so exasperated at the issue of the trial, 
that he struck the judge in open court. The venerable magis- 
trate, impressed with the dignity of his office, ordered the 
Prince to be committed to prison ; the Prince willingly sub- 
mitted to the order of the judge. When the circumstance 
was related to the King, he exclaimed, " Happy is the King 
who has a magistrate endowed with courage to execute laws 
upon such an offender ; still more happy in having a son who 
is willing to submit to such a chastisement." Henry died in 
the forty-sixth year of his age and fourteenth of his reign, 
A. D. 1413. 

3. Henry Y., on succeeding to the throne, agreeably sur- 
prised the nation by a sudden reformation of his conduct. 
Calling together all his abandoned companions, he acquainted 
them of his design, and forbade them to appear in his pres- 
ence until they had followed his example. He received with 
respect the faithful ministers of his father; commended Gas- 
coigne for his impartial conduct, and exhorted him to con- 
tinue in a strict execution of the laws. 

4. Henry having revived his claim to the crown of France, 
and taking advantage of the internal disorders of that king- 
dom, invaded the country at the head of only fifteen thousand 
men, and defeated the French army, amounting to sixty 
thousand men, in the famous battle of Agincourt. The 
French lost, on this memorable occasion, eleven thousand 
killed and fourteen thousand prisoners, while the English 
lost only forty slain. After having reduced Normandy, he 
was declared regent of France and acknowledged heir to the 
crown. But having reached the summit of earthly glory, 
his brilliant career was cut short by the hand of death ; he 
died in the thirty-fourth year of his age and the tenth of his 
reign, a. d. 1422. 

5. Henry YI., on the death of his father, succeeded to the 
throne at the age of ten months, and was proclaimed King 
of England and of France. During his minority his uncles, 
the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester, were appointed pro- 
tectors of his dominions, the former of France and the latter 
of England. The French, considering this a favorable mo- 
ment, resolved to shake off" the English yoke, and again 
assert the independence of their country. In this they suc- 

What did the king exclaim ? When did Henry die ? — 3. What is said 
of Henry V. ? Whom did he receive ? — 4. What did he revive ? What 
battle did he gain ? What was the loss on both sides ? When did he 
die? — 5. Who succeeded? Who were appointed protectors? What did 
the French resolve? 



ENGLAND. . 261 

ceeded, and Charles YII., the Dauphin, recovered by degrees 
the greater part of his kingdom. 

6. The city of Orleans was so situated between the prov- 
inces possessed by Charles and those commanded by the 
regent, that it afforded an easy access to either. To this 
point, therefore, the forces of each w^ere directed ; the French 
to defend, the English to reduce it. At length, after the 
French were reduced to the last extremity, the English were 
compelled to raise the siege through the courage of the re- 
nowned heroine, Joan of Arc, and shortly after they were 
deprived of all their possessions in France except Calais. 

T. Henry, as he advanced in years, exhibited a mild and 
inoffensive disposition. He might, perhaps, have reigned 
with credit at some less turbulent period, but he was ill cal- 
culated to manage the reins of government at the time in 
which he lived. He married Margaret of Anjou, daughter 
of the King of Sicily, a woman of a heroic mind, and emi- 
nently distinguished for the part she bore in the wars that 
distracted his reign. The insurrection of Jack Cade was an 
event of considerable importance. Cade, under the assumed 
name of John Mortimer, collected an army of twenty thou- 
sand followers, but was defeated and slain. 

8. The Duke of Gloucester was heir to the crown in case 
the King died without issue ; he had opposed the marriage 
of Henry with Margaret, a circumstance which did not fail 
to render him odious in the eyes of the Queen, and his death 
took place, a short time after, in a very suspicious manner. 
This event, in connection with the weak character of the 
King, encouraged the Duke of York to assert his claim to 
the crown. At this period the sanguinary contest between 
the houses of York and Lancaster was commenced, and by 
it England was for thirty years cursed with the din of arms. 
The nation was drenched in all the horrors of civil war, in- 
volving alike the inmates of the cottage and the castle ; all 
the social ties of affection seemed rent asunder ; often was 
the father armed against his son ; the son against his father; 
brother against brother, and the nearest friends against each 
other. The adherents of the house of Lancaster chose a red 
rose as a symbol of their party, while the house of York 
wore the white rose; hence this unhappy struggle is known 
. ^ — . 

6. What is said of Orleans ? How was the siege of the city raised ? — 
7. What is said of Flenry ? Whom did he marry ? What insurrection 
took place ? — 8. What is said of the Duke of Gloucester ? At this pe- 
riod what commenced ? What is said of this contest ? What were the 
symbols of each party ? 



262 ENGLAND. 

in history as the War of the Roses. During this period 
more than one hundred thousand men were sacrificed at the 
unhallowed shrine of ambition. 

9. In the battle of St. Albans the L an caster ians were de- 
feated, and the King taken prisoner ; but Queen Margaret 
still kept the field, and gained the battle of Wakefield, in 
which the Duke of York was defeated and slain. But Ed- 
ward, his son, inherited all the ambition and abilities of his 
father ; he was then in the bloom of youth, remarkable for 
the beauty of his person, his bravery and affability, which 
gained him the affection of the people. Confiding in his 
popularity more than in his right to the crown, he entered 
London with a numerous army, amidst the shouts of the 
citizens, and was proclaimed King, under the title of Ed- 
ward lY., A. D. 1461. 



CHAPTER VI. 



BRANCH OF YORK; EDWARD IV.; EDWARD V.; RICH- 
ARD III.— FROM A.D. 1461 TO 1485. 

EDWARD, who had now attained the summit of his 
ambition, soon found that the throne was not a place 
for the enjoyment of tranquillity and repose. The undaunted 
Margaret, having collected an army of sixty thousand men, 
a,2:ain took the field against him. Edward and the Earl of 
Warwick, at the head of an army much inferior in number, 
marched to oppose her. A tremendous battle was fought 
at Towton, in which Edward gained a decisive victory, 
leaving thirty-six thousand Englishmen dead upon the 
field. 

2. The unfortunate Queen, with no other attendant than 
her son, a boy about eight years of age, while flying from 
her enemies, was benighted in Hexham forest, and fell into 
the hands of ruflBans, who despoiled her of her jewels and 
treated her with the greatest indignity ; they, however, dis- 
puted about the spoils, and while engaged in dispute, she 

How many were sacrificed? — 9. What happened in the battle of St. 
Albans? What is said of Edward ? Confiding in his popularity, what 
did he do ? 

Chapter VI.— 1. What is said of Edward? Of Margaret? What 
battle was fought ? — 2. What is related of the unfortunate queen ? 



ENGLAND. 263 

effected her escape with her son into the thickest of the forest. 
But when overcome with fright and fatigue, and about to 
sink in despair, she was suddenly aroused by the approach 
of a robber with a drawn sword. Finding no possible means 
of escaping, she determined to throw herself upon his gener- 
osity. She arose as he approached, and said, "Friend, here 
is the son of yoar King ; 1 commit him to your protection." 
The man, pleased with the confidence placed in him, offered 
every assistance in his power, and safely conducted her, with 
her son, to a seaport, from which she escaped, and sailed for 
Flanders. 

3. Edward, now finding himself securely seated on the 
throne, began to exhibit the bias of his character. The Earl 
of Warwick, the most powerful nobleman in England, and 
one of the greatest generals of his time, had been com- 
missioned to France to procure Bona of Savoy as queen for 
the young monarch. While he was absent, Edward hap- 
pened, during a hunting-party, to pay a visit to the Duchess 
of Bedford, at Grafton, and saw, for the first time, the young 
and beautiful lady Elizabeth Gray, daughter of the Duchess. 
Struck with her beauty and accomplishments, he raised her 
to the throne, forgetful of his engagements with Bona of 
Savoy. 

4. The Duke, on his return to England, was inflamed with 
indignation, and leaving the court in disgust, he retired to 
France, where he entered into a league with Queen Mar- 
garet, and espoused the interest of the .fallen monarch. 
Through his exertions Edward was deposed, and Henry, 
after having remained a prisoner in the Tower for six years, 
was again reinstated on the throne. Thus Warwick having 
restored Hsnry, whom he deposed, and now having removed 
Edward, whom he had raised to the throne, obtained the title 
of King-maker. Edward, who had retired to the court of the 
Duke of Burgundy, shortly after returned with reinforce- 
ments, and defeated the forces of Henry in the bloody battle 
of Barnet, in which the brave Warwick was slain. 

5. The intrepid Margaret, on learning this overthrow, 
yielded to her destiny almost in despair, and bursting into a 
flood of grief, she retired to an abbey in Hampshire. But 

Finding no means of escaping, what did she do? What did the man 
offer and do ? — 3. What is now said of Edward ? Where was the Earl 
of Warwick sent? During his absence what took place? — 4. What is 
said of the duke on his return to England? Through his exertions 
what was done ? What was he styled ? What did Edward again do ? — 
6. What is said of Margaret? 



264 ENGLAND. 

at the urgent solicitation of her adherents, she again left her 
retreat, and made a last and desperate effort to regain the 
crown in the battle of Tewkesbury, which blighted forever 
the last remnant of her hopes. She was taken prisoner with 
her son ; the King asked the prince how he dared to invade 
his dominions, to which the youthfnl Edward replied, " I 
have entered the dominions of my father, to avenge his in- 
juries and to redress my own." The ungenerous King, 
enraged at this magnanimous reply, struck the prince with 
his gauntlet. Some of his attendants, taking this as a signal 
for further violence, hurried the prince into the next apart- 
ment and dispatched him with their daggers. 

6. The unhappy Queen, after sustaining the cause of her 
husband in twelve different battles, after surviving her friends, 
her children, and her fortune, passed the remainder of her 
days an exile in France, w^here she died in obscurity and 
neglect. Henry terminated his eventful life by assassination 
in prison. Edward lY. passed the remainder of his reign 
in acts of tyranny and cruelty. He caused his brother, the 
Duke of Clarence, to be condemned for a trifling offence, and 
being allowed to choose the manner of his death, he was 
drowned in a cask of Malmsey wine. 

These acts of cruelty were soon terminated by the death 
of the King himself; he died in the forty-second year of his 
age, A. D. 1482. During this monarch's reign, the art of 
printing was introduced into England by William Caxton 
of London.* 

T. Edward lY. left two sons. The eldest, being only 
thirteen years of age, succeeded to the throne under the title 
of Edward Y. The Duke of Gloucester, brother of the late 
King, being appointed protector during the young King's 
minority, after causing Lord Hastings, and other distin- 
guished persons, to be put to death without trial, seized 
upon the crown, under the pretence that his nephews were 
illegitimate, and caused himself to be proclaimed king, by 
the title of Richard III. The two young princes shortly 
afterwards disappeared, and are said to have been barba- 

* The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of Chess, 
in 1474. 

At the solicitation of her adherents, what did she again do? What 
was her fate ? What was the reply of the youthful Edward ? What 
was his end? — 6. What is said of the unhappv queen? Of Henry? 
Of Edward IV. ? What did he cause ? When did he die ? By whom 
was printing introduced ?— 7. What did Edward leave ? What did the 
Duke of Gloucester do ? What is said of the two young princes ? 



ENGLAND. 265 

rously smothered in the Tower by the order of the King 
himself. 

8. Richard, who had gained the throne by imbruing his 
hands in the blood of lawful heirs, was not destined long to 
enjoy the ill-gotten crown. Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, 
the only surviving heir of the house of Lancaster, advanced 
his title to the crown, and assisted by the King of France, 
once more revived the almost extinguished spirit of his party. 
A decisive battle was fought at Bosworth, in which Richard 
was slain ; his rival was crowned upon the field of battle, and 
assumed the title of Henry VII. 

This event terminated the long and bloody contest between 
the houses of York and Lancaster, which had entailed so 
many evils upon the nation, and reduced it almost to a state 
of barbarism — the arts of peace being entirely neglected for 
those of war. 



CHAPTER VII. 



TUDOR FAMILY: HENRY VIT. ; HENRY VIIL ; EDWARD VI.; 
MARY; ELIZABETH— FROM A. D. 1485 TO 1603. 

THE succession of Henry to the throne was an event 
highly favorable to the nation, as it put an end to the 
ruinous civil wars that had so long devastated the kingdom. 
By marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., he 
strengthened his claim, and thus united the two houses of 
Lancaster and York. The early part of his reign was dis- 
turbed by the appearance of two successive pretenders to the 
throne ; the one in the person of Lambert Simnel, the son 
of a baker, who attempted to counterfeit the Earl of War- 
wick ; the other was one Perkin Warheck, who made an 
attempt to counterfeit the Duke of York, who had been 
murdered in the Tower by order of Richard III. 

2. Lambert, after being proclaimed king of England and 
Ireland at DuJjlin, was made prisoner, but Henry, instead of 
consigning him to the scaffold, made him a servant in his 
kitchen. Warbeck, however, supported his cause for some 

8. What is said of Richard ? Of Henry Tudor ? Where was the battle 
fought ? What was the result ? 

Chapter VIL— 1. What is said of Henry's accession? Whom did 
he marry ? By what was his reign disturbed ? Who were they ? — 2. 
What is "said of Lambert ? Of Warbeck ? 
23 



266 ENGLAND. 

time with better success ; many of the nobility flocked to his 
standard, and he was acknowledged as sovereign of England 
by the kings of France and Scotland. After a variety of 
adventures, he surrendered himself to the King under a 
promise of pardon; but having been detected in a conspiracy 
with the Earl of Warwick, to effect their escape from the 
Tower by murdering the lieutenant, he was hanged at Ty- 
burn, and the Earl was beheaded. 

3. After a prosperous reign of about twenty-four years, 
Henry began to think of preparing for the last and trying 
scene of life ; having ordered in his will that restoration 
should be made to all whom he might have injured, he died 
in the fifty-second year of his age. Henry, in many respects, 
may be considered, if not the most conspicuous, at least one 
of the most useful monarchs that occupied the throne of 
England from the days of Alfred. He was a prince equally 
distinguished for his wisdom in the cabinet and conduct in 
the field. He enacted many wise and salutary laws ; en- 
couraged industry and extended commerce ; allowed the 
nobles to dispose of their estates, by which means their 
power was weakened, while property and equality were more 
widely difi'used among all orders of the state. 

4. It was during the reign of Henry VII. that the great 
Christopher Columbus discovered America. Accident alone 
prevented Henry from having a share in that celebrated 
enterprise. However, five years after the first voyage made 
by Columbus, the English monarch employed Sebastian Ca- 
bot, a native of Bristol, who discovered Labrador, Newfound- 
land, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It was on this dis- 
covery that England founded her claim to North America. 
The greatest stain upon the character of Henry YII. was his 
avarice ; by his frugality and exactions, he accumulated im- 
mense wealth, and at his death he is said to have left in money 
the sum of £1,800,000, equal to £10,000,000 at the present day. 

5. Henry YIIL, son of the late monarch, succeeded to the 
throne under the most favorable auspices. His title to the 
crown was undisputed ; the treasury well filled ; the nation 
at peace ; the country prosperous and happy. He possessed 
every quality that might endear him to the aifections of his 
people ; he was in the eighteenth year of his age, of a hand- 

What was their fate? — 3. After a reign of twenty-four years, of what 
did he beajin to think ? In many respects, what may Henry be consid- 
ered ? What did he enact, etc. ? — 4. During his reign, what took place ? 
What is the greatest stain upon his character? — 5. Who succeeded? 
What did he possess ? 



ENGLAND. 267 

some person, polite in his deportment, frank and open in his 
disposition, and possessed an accomplished education. But 
we will see in the sequel of his history that all these prom- 
ising qualities, as he advanced in years, degenerated into the 
most detestable vices, and that Henry became one of the 
most cruel, brutal, and unprincipled tyrants that ever dis- 
graced a throne. 

6. By his prodigality and profusion he soon exhausted 
the treasury, which he found full when he ascended the 
throne. In the early part of his reign he declared war 
against Louis XII. of France, invaded his dominions, and 
gained over him the battle of the Spurs (so called from the 
flight of the French cavalry), but failed to improve his good 
fortune, and after taking Tournay returned to England. 
About the same time the Scots, who had made an incursion 
into the northern part of his dominions, were defeated by 
the Earl of Surrey at Flodden Field, where James IV. of 
Scotland, with the greater part of his nobility, was slain. 
The English King was also somewhat involved in that long 
and bloody contest between Charles Y. of Germany and 
Francis I. of France. 

7. About this period Henry wrote a book against Luther, 
the famous Reformer, on which account he was styled by 
the Pope, "Defender of the Faith;" a title which is retained 
by his successors to the present day. The most memorable 
transactions of Henry's reign were his matrimonial alliances, 
and the unhappy consequence that followed from them. His 
first wife was Catherine of Arragon, daughter of Ferdinand 
of Spain, who had formerly been betrothed to his brother 
Arthur, who died before the marriage was consummated. 

8. Among her maids of honor the Queen had Anne, the 
fair and beautiful daughter of Sir Thomas Bo'leyn. This 
accomplished lady, then in the bloom of youth, so captivated 
the fickle King's affections that he resolved to make her his 
wife. But his prior marriage with Catherine presented an 
insuperable obstacle. He had been contracted to her at an 
early period, through the influence of his father, and married 
shortly after he ascended the throne. But now, after living 
with this virtuous Princess for eighteen years, Henry as- 

What will we see in the sequel ? — 6. ' By his prodigality, what did he 
do? Against whom did he declare war? Where was James of Scot- 
land defeated and slain ? — 7. About this period, what did Henry do ? 
"What were the most memorable transactions of his reign ? Who was 
his first wife ? — 8. Who was among her maids of honor ? What is said 
of this accomplished lady ? Of his prior marriage ? 



268 ENGLAND. 

serted that he began to feel conscientious scruples respecting 
his marriage, on account of her having been the wife of his 
brother, and applied to Clement YII. for a divorce. The 
Sovereign Pontiff, however, unable to grant his request, held 
him for a time in suspense, hoping that delay might change 
the mind of the English monarch. In his prime minister, 
the celebrated Cardinal Wolsey, Henry expected to find an 
obsequious agent. But perceiving that the Cardinal did not 
meet his expectations, he resolved on his ruin, and ordered 
him to be arrested for high treason. 

9. This extraordinary man was born at Ipswich, in Suf- 
folk, of humble parentage, but gifted with superior talents 
and great abilities, he rose to the highest preferments in 
Church and State ; having been elevated to the arch-episcopal 
See of York, then created Cardinal, and soon afterwards 
Lord High Chancellor of England and Prime Minister. 
The fame of his talents, riches, and power was known 
throughout all Europe. On his way from York to London, 
to stand his trial, he stopped at Leicester Abbey, where he 
died after a short illness. A few moments before his death 
he uttered these remarkable words, in reference to the in- 
gratitude of his sovereign : " If I had served my God as 
faithfully as I have served my King, He would not have 
abandoned nie in my gray hairs." From the fate of this 
great man we may learn the instability of human greatness 
and the weakness of human power. 

10. In the meantime the headstrong King pushed forward 
the divorce with all his energy. The See of Canterbury 
having become vacant, he pitched upon the famous Cranmer 
to fill it. In this unprincipled man Henry found a ready 
and willing instrument, not only to accomplish his present 
wish, but also to serve him in similar circumstances on a 
future occasion. Growing impatient of delay, and failing 
to obtain the Pope's consent for the divorce, he resolved to 
carry the measure without his consent. For this purpose 
he assembled a court, over which Cranmer presided ; this 
tribunal, after a short deliberation, pronounced his marriage 
with Catherine invalid, and immediately proceeded to grant 
the divorce. The King, whose amorous affections would 



the Pope? AVho was his prime minister? — 9. What is said of this 
extraordinary man ? Of the fame of his talents ? Before his death, 
what remarkable words did he utter ? — 10. Who was chosen to fill the 
see of Canterbury ? Growing impatient, what did he resolve ? For this 
purpose, what was done ? 



ENGLAND. 269 

not permit him to delay, had been previously married to 
Anne Boleyn, even before he had received the decision of 
the court appointed to annul his marriage with Catherine.'^'' 

11. Henry nov^r threw off all decent restraint; abolished 
the Papal jurisdiction in England, and caused himself, by 
act of Parliament, to be proclaimed head of the English 
church. He arrogated to himself infallibility, and con- 
demned all, both Catholics and Protestants, to the stake 
who held opinions contrary to his own. The venerable 
Bishop Fisher and the celebrated Sir Thomas More, then 
High Chancellor, were brought to the scaffold for refusing 
to acknowledge his supremacy. By an unjust act of Par- 
liament the monasteries in England, to the number of six 
hundred, were suppressed, besides a much greater number 
of other religious institutions ; their estates were converted 
to the use of the crown, and their revenues swept into the 
royal exchequer. Speaking of these institutions, Collier 
says: **To the abbeys w^e are indebted for most of our best 
historians, both church and state ; the youth there had their 
education with little charge to their parents ; the nobility 
and gentry a credible way of providing for their younger 
children." 

12. Nor did Henry stop here. He even extended his 
rapacious hand from the dwellings of the living to the 
silent, sacred repose of the tomb. He plundered the rich 
shrine of St. Thomas of Canterbury, despoiled it of its 
ornaments of gold and silver, converting the w^hole to the 
royal treasury ; then ordering the Saint to be indicted for 
high treason committed against his sovereign, Henry II., he 
condemned him as a traitor. The holy martyr's bones were 
dug up and scattered to the wind.f 

13. In less than three years after his late marriage he 

* Pope Clement annulled the sentence given by Cranmer, as the cause 
was at the very time pending before himself, and excommunicated 
Henry and Anne unless they should separate before the end of Sep- 
tember, or show cause why they claimed to be considered as husband 
and wife. The College of Cardinals subsequently pronounced a defini- 
tive sentence, declaring the proceedings against Catherine unjust, and 
ordering the King to take her back as his legitimate wife. — Lingard. 

t For a full account of the Reformation in England, see Cobbett's 
History of the Reformation. 

What had the king done before receiving the decision of the court ? — 
11. What did the king now do? What is said of Bishops Fisher and 
More ? What was done by act of parliament ? What does Mr. Collier 
say of these institutions? — 12. What did he plunder? What did he 
order ? — ^13. In less than three year^, what happened ? 
23* 



270 ENGLAND. 

caused the new Queen, Anne Boleyn, to be condemned and 
beheaded for real or imputed crimes, and on the day after 
her execution he married Jane Seymour, who died shortly 
after the birth of Prince Edward. His fourth wife was 
Anne of Cleves, from whom he obtained a divorce because 
he had been deceived in the estimate he had formed of her 
personal appearance. Thomas Cromwell, who was the son 
of a blacksmith in Putney, now created Earl of Essex and 
prime minister, having been instrumental in bringing about 
the unhappy marriage, lost the favor of the King, and suf- 
fered on the scaffold. His fifth wife was Catherine Howard, 
who also ended her days on the scaffold, in a few months 
after her exaltation to the throne. His last wife was Cath- 
erine Par, the widow of Lord Latimer, whose life was 
saved by the death of the brutal King, which took place in 
the thirty-seventh year of his reign and fifty-sixth of his 
age, A. D. 1547. And thus passed away one of the vilest 
despots that ever disgraced a throne or lorded it over a 
nation of slaves. 

14. Henry YIII. was succeeded by his son, Edward YL, 
in the tenth year of his age, the Duke of Somerset, his 
uncle, being appointed Protector of the kingdom during his 
minority. The reign of this prince is distinguished by the 
important change in the religion of the realm. During the 
reign of his father the principles of the so-called Reforma- 
tion, w^hich had been introduced into the kingdom, were 
now patronized and tolerated. By degrees the forms of the 
ancient Church were removed in order to make place for 
those of the new. A new liturgy in the English language 
and a book of Common Prayer were composed by Arch- 
bishop Cranmer. By the adoption of this liturgy, which 
was done by act of Parliament, all the rights and cere- 
monies of the Catholic Church were abolished, and a form 
of worship nearly resembling that of the present Church of 
England established throughout the kingdom. 

15. The young King, who possessed many amiable quali- 
ties, was suddenly carried off by death, in the sixteenth year 
of his age. Previously, however, he had been prevailed on, 
by the influence and intrigues of the Duke of Northumber- 
land, the Protector, to set aside his two sisters, Mary and 

Who was his fourth wife? What is said of Thomas Cromwell? 
Who was his fifth wife ? Who was his sixth wife ? When did Henry 
die? — 14. Who succeeded? For what is the reign of this prince dis- 
tinguished? What was composed by Cranmer? By the adoption of 
this liturgy, what was effected ? — 15. What is said of the young king ? 



ENGLAND. 271 

Elizabeth, and to leave the crown to Lady Jane Grey, who 
had married Lord Guilford Dudley, the son of the Pro- 
tector. Through the influence of her friends, Lady Jane 
Grey was immediately proclaimed on the death of Edward ; 
but, after wearing the crown for ten days, she resigned the 
ensigns of royalty and retired again into a private station. 
After this unsuccessful attempt of Northumberland to snatch 
the crown from the brow of the rightful heir, Mary, the 
sister of Edward, quietly succeeded to the throne. 

16. The Duke of Northumberland and two others were 
the only persons who sufiTered on the scaffold to atone for 
this conspiracy against their lawful sovereign. Lady Jane, 
who was considered as a mere instrument in the hands of 
the duke to work out his ambitious designs, was pardoned 
by Queen Mary. But shortly after this a second conspiracy 
was entered into against Mary, at the head of which ap- 
peared the Duke of Suffolk and his brother ; they were 
defeated, and atoned for their rebellion by the sacrifice of 
their lives. 

17. Mary, who had been much blamed for her lenient 
conduct at the termination of the former conspiracy, was 
now induced, by the urgent persuasion of her ministers, to 
sign a warrant for the execution of Lady Jane Grey and 
her husband. On the fatal morning permission was given 
them to take leave of each other ; the indulgence Jane re- 
fused, saying that they would shortly meet in Heaven. 
From the window of her cell she saw her hasband led to 
execution and his bleeding corpse brought back to the 
chapel. When led forth herself, she mounted the scaffold 
with a firm step. She acknowledged, in a few words to the 
spectators, her fault in consenting to the treason of North- 
umberland, although she was not one of the original con- 
spirators ; and, after repeating a psalm, she laid her head 
upon the block. At the first stroke of the axe it was severed 
from the body. 

18. Mary has been much censured in consenting to the 
execution of this unfortunate lady. It is true that her life 
had been spared as a pledge for the loyalty of the house of 
Suffolk ; that pledge had been forfeited by the late rebellion 
of the duke ; but still '' it would have been to the honor of 

To whom did he leave the crown ? What is said of Lady Jane Grey? 
— 16. Who suffered on the scaffold? What Avas again entered into 
against Mary? — 17. What was Mary now induced to do? On the fatal 
morning what is said of her? When brought forth, what did she do? — 
18. For what has Mary been censured? 



272 ENGLAND. 

Mary," as Dr. Lingard observes, "to have overlooked the 
provocation, and refused to visit on the daughter the guilt 
of the father." Mary, in the second year of her reign, 
married Philip II., of Spain, a measure unpopular at the 
time, and productive of much unhappiness to herself; and 
towards the close of her reign the French took Calais, which 
had remained in possession of the English for upwards of 
two hundred and ten years. This event hastened her death. 
The royal lady never seemed to recover from the stroke, and 
was often heard to say that the word Calais was written on 
her heart. She died in the forty-sixth year of her age, after 
a reign of six years, a. d. 1558. 

19. The heaviest charge against the memory of this Queen 
is her persecution of the Reformers.* It may be remarked, 
not, however, in vindication of her acts, but as an apology 
for her conduct, that she lived at a time when the principles 
of religious toleration were not understood or practised by 
either Catholics or Protestants ; when the extirpation of 
erroneous doctrines was inculcated as a duty by the leaders 
of every religious part}''. It was the misfortune rather than 
the fault of Mary, that she was not more enlightened than 
the wisest of her cotemporaries. With the exception of this 
she is regarded, even by many of those writers who differed 
from her in belief, as a Queen possessed of many amiable 
qualities ; they have borne honorable testimony to her vir- 
tues ; have allotted to her the praise of piety and clemency, 
of compassion for the poor and liberality to the distressed. 
'•The Queen's private life," says Collier, "was all along 
strict and unblemished. The other world was always up- 
permost with her. She valued her conscience above her 
crown. She was not of a vindictive or implacable spirit." 

20. As Mary had always remained firm in the belief and 
practice of the Catholic Faith, one of her first measures was 
to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom, the public 
exercise of which had been nearly banished during the reign 
of her brother. 

21. Upon the death of Mary, her sister Elizabeth ascended 
the throne. Elizabeth, during the reign of her sister, had 

^ The principal sufierei^ were Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley, and Hooper. 

What does Dr. Lingard observe? Whom did she marry? What 
place did the French take? When did she die? — 19. What is the 
foulest blot upon her memory? What might be remarked? With 
this exception, how is she regarded ? What does Collier say of her ? — 
20. What was one of her first measures ?— 21. On the death of Mary, 
who ascended the throne ? 



ENGLAND. 273 

been a Catholic, but shortly after her accession she openly 
avowed herself the protectress of the Reformers, established 
Protestantism as the religion of the realm, assumed the title 
of supreme head of the English Church, and revived all the 
penal statutes against non-conformists, to v^hich were added 
many others of the most cruel and oppressive nature. It 
was made high treason to deny the Queen's supremacy, or 
acknowledge the jurisdiction of the See of Rome within her 
dominions, or to absolve, persuade, or withdraAV any one 
from the Protestant to the Catholic Church. 

22. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, the grand-daughter of 
Henry YII., was the next heir to the English throne. This 
fact did not fail to excite the fears and jealousy of Elizabeth, 
who never ceased in her resentment until she brought her 
unhappy cousin to a premature and tragical end. The young 
Queen of Scotland had been renowned throughout Europe 
for her beauty and accomplishments. She had been edu- 
cated at the French court, and married Francis II., who 
died shortly after that event, and Mary returned to her own 
dominions. After a strange succession of events, which 
come more properly under the head of Scotland, the Scottish 
Queen was compelled to quit her dominions and take refuge 
in England, where she was detained in captivity for nearly 
twenty years, and finally put to death by order of her cousin 
Elizabeth. 

23. In 1588, Philip of Spain projected the invasion of 
England, to avenge the Queen's interference with his sub- 
jects of the Netherlands, who had revolted against his 
authority. For this purpose he fitted out the Invincible 
Arma'da, which consisted of one hundred and fifty ships, 
carrying three thousand pieces of cannon and tAventy-seven 
thousand men. It entered the English Channel in the form 
of a crescent, and extended to the distance of seven miles. 
It was met by the English fleet, under the command of 
Lord Admiral Howard, aided by Drake, Hawkins, Fro'- 
bisher, and RaFeigh. Being gradually weakened and dis- 
persed by a violent storm, the In/vincible Armada was 
completely overthrown ; only one-third of the vessels, with 
six thousand men, returned to Spain. 

What is said of Elizabeth ? What did she assume and revive ? What 
was made high treason ? — 22. Who was the next heir to the throne ? 
What is said of the young queen? After a succession of events, what 
took place? — 23. In 1588, what was done? For this purpose, what did 
he fit out? Who commanded the English fleet? What was the fate 
of the Armada ? 

S 



274 ENGLAND. 

24. In the administration of the government, Elizabeth 
was assisted by many eminent statesmen ; among whom 
were Bacon, Burleigh, and Walsingham. But her chief 
favorites were men of abandoned characters. Of these, in 
the early part of her reign, was the Earl of Leicester ; and 
after his death the Earl of Essex seemed to hold the first 
place in the Queen's affections. Elizabeth and Essex had 
various quarrels and reconciliations; at last, unable to re- 
strain the impetuosity of his temper, he broke out in open 
rebellion against her, for which he atoned by his death on 
the scaffold. 

25. After the death of Essex the health of the Queen 
visibly declined. At length she fell into a profound melan- 
choly, which nothing could alleviate, and terminated her 
life in sorrow and gloom. All the splendor of royalty faded 
from her view ; the time was come, to use her own ex- 
pression, when "men would turn from the setting to worship 
the rising sun." She expired in the seventieth year of her 
age and in the forty-fifth of her reign. 

26. Elizabeth doubtless possessed eminent abilities as a 
sovereign, and was distinguished for her talents in directing 
public affairs. But in principle she was despotic, jealous, 
cruel, and revengeful ; overbearing to her ministers in coun- 
cil; imperious to her servants in the palace ; and in her con- 
versation often grossly profane. Her private character is 
even less to be admired. She was a shameless woman, — 
the mere sport of vice, vanity, and passion. She possessed 
none of those milder and graceful qualities that adorn the 
female character. Her reign, however, was distinguished 
for men of genius and learning; among whom Bacon, 
Shakespeare, and Spenser were the most distinguished. 
The custom of smoking tobacco was introduced by Sir 
Walter Raleigh ; and potatoes were also brought to Eng- 
land from America at this period. 

24. Who were some of her eminent statesmen ? Who were her fa- 
vorites ? — 25. At length into what did she fall ? What expression did 
she make use of? When did she expire? — 26. What did Elizabeth 
possess ? What was she in principle ? Of what did she possess few ? 
By what was her reign distinguished ? What was introduced by Eal- 
eigh ? 



ENGLAND. 275 



CHAPTER YIII. 

STUART FAMILY: JAMES I.; CHARLES I.; THE COMMON- 
WEALTH; CROMWELL; CHARLES II.; JAMES II.; WILLIAM 
AND MARY; ANNE.— FROM A. D. 1603 TO 1714, 

ELIZABETH shortly before her death nominated as her 
successor the son of unhappy Mary Stuart, James VI. 
of Scotland, who was the rightful heir by descent. On 
ascending the English throne he took the title of James L, 
and thus were the crowns of the two kingdoms united. 
Shortly after his arrival in England, a conspiracy was formed 
against him in favor of his cousin, Arabella Stuart. It 
was prematurely discovered, and Sir Walter Raleigh, under 
a charge of being concerned in the plot, was sentenced to 
death, which was carried into execution after he had lan- 
guished in prison, with little intermission, for fifteen years. 

2. Another conspiracy followed, of a more serious nature. 
This was the famous Gunpowder Plot, which was a design 
of a few daring adventurers to blow up the Parliament 
House, and involve in one common ruin the King, Lords, 
and Commons. It was fortunately discovered on the eve 
of its accomplishment, and one of the leaders, named Guy 
Fawkes, was taken with matches in his pocket for firing the 
magazine. 

3. It was the misfortune of James to be attached to un- 
worthy favorites, such as the Earl of Somerset and the 
Duke of Buckingham, men whose only merits were their 
personal appearance and superficial accomplishments. During 
the reign of Mary the Puritans made their first appearance 
in England, and during- the last reign their number had 
greatly increased. At the accession of James, who had 
been educated a Presbyterian, they flattered themselves that 
their views would meet the royal approbation. Being dis- 
appointed in their expectations, some of their number sought 
an asylum from restraint in matters of religion in the wilds 
of America, and formed a settlement on the shores of New 
England. 

Chapter VIII. — 1. Who succeeded Elizabeth? After his arrival 
in England, what was formed against him ? What is said of Ealeigh ? 
— 2. What other conspiracy followed? Who was one of the leaders? 
— 3. What was the misfortune of James ? During the reign of Mary, 
who made their appearance in England ? At the accession of James, 
what did they expect? Where did many of them go? 



276 ENGLAND. 

4. In 1625 the King was seized with an illness which 
terminated his life, in the fifty-ninth year of his age and 
the twenty-second of his reign over England. James pos- 
sessed many virtues, but few free from the contagion of the 
neighboring vices. His generosity bordered on profusion ; 
his learning on pedantry ; his friendship on a puerile fond- 
ness. His leading passion seems to have been a love of 
arbitrary power. The divine right of kings to govern with- 
out control was with him a favorite theme. Being naturally 
averse to war, his reign was peaceful. He was fond of 
flattery, which was dealt out to him with an unsparing hand 
by his bishops and courtiers, who regarded him as the Brit- 
ish Solomon, yet by others he seems to have merited the 
appellation given him by the Duke of Sully, — that of the 
''wisest of the fools of Europe." 

6. Charles I. succeeded his father to the throne under 
many apparent advantages. He had not assumed the reins 
of government long before he proved that he had imbibed 
the arbitrary principles of his father; he patronized the 
same unworthy favorite, Buckingham, who still retained 
all his former influence and authority. He married Hen- 
rietta Maria, daughter of Henry lY. of France, a princess 
distinguished for her devotedness to her husband throughout 
all the eventful scenes of his life. 

6. The refusal of the Parliament to grant adequate sup- 
plies to enable him to carry on a war against France and 
Spain, led Charles to adopt a resolution of ruling without 
their aid, and of levying money without their authority. 
This manifestation of a tyrannical disposition on the part 
of the King first roused the Parliament against him. Charles 
could not brook the denial of supplies, dissolved the Par- 
liament, and issued a warrant for borrowing money of his 
subjects. 

T. After an unsuccessful expedition against France, Buck- 
ingham, who had long since rendered himself detestable to 
the Parliament, was assassinated by one FeltoD. The death 
of his favorite, however, did not deter Charles from his 
arbitrary proceedings. A new Parliament was formed, as 
uncompromising as the former, and exhibited a spirit of 

4. When did the king die ? What is his character ? What was he 
styled by the Duke of Sully? — 5. Who succeeded? Whom did he 
patronize? Whom did he marry? — 6. What led him to adopt the 
resolution of ruling without the aid of parliament? What did he 
dissolve? 7. What was the end of Buckingham? What was a new 
parliament formed for ? 



ENGLAND. 277 

determined opposition. A petition of rights was passed by 
both Houses, which declared the illegality of raising money 
without their sanction, or of enforcing loans from the sub- 
jects, and annulled all taxes imposed without the consent of 
Parliament. 

8. At this period the current of public feeling seemed to 
run strongly in favor of Puritanism, which had been on the 
ascendency since the accession of James to the English 
throne. Charles now proceeded to a very injudicious and 
unpopular measure, which was to enforce, throughout his 
kingdom, a strict conformity to the liturgy of the Church 
of England ; and, through the indiscreet zeal of Archbishop 
Laud, the measure was rigidly enforced. Not satisfied with 
attempting to enforce the liturgy in England, the King en- 
deavored to impose the new liturgy upon the national Church 
of Scotland. Here the measure met with the most deter- 
mined opposition, and excited the strongest sensations among 
all ranks of people. An association was entered into, called 
the National Covenant, by which the parties bound them- 
selves by oath to resist all religious innovations. 

9. After eleven years of intermission, the King found him- 
self obliged again to convoke the Parliament ; but that body, 
instead of listening to his demand for supplies, began with 
presenting the public grievances, complaining of the infringe- 
ment of the privileges of Parliament, illegal taxation, and 
the violence done to the cause of religion. Charles, finding 
that nothing could be obtained from this assembly, so deter- 
mined to oppose all his measures, dissolved the Parliament, 
but shortly afterwards convoked another. 

10. One of the first acts of the new Parliament was the 
impeachment of the Earl of Strafford, the minister of state, 
and Archbishop Laud, on a charge of endeavoring to sub- 
vert the constitution and to introduce arbitrary power. 
Strafford was arraigned for trial before the House of Lords ; 
his defence on this occasion is said to have been one of the 
most pathetic pieces of eloquence ever delivered ; but noth- 
ing could save him from the vengeance of his enemies. He 
was found guilty, sentenced, and beheaded. This was a 
severe stroke to the King, who lost in the Earl a faithful 

What was passed? — 8. At this period, how did the current of public 
opinion seem to run? To what measure did Charles now proceed? 
How was he met in Scotland? — 9. After eleven years, what did the 
king do? What is said of this body? What course did the king pur- 
sue ? — 10. What was one of the first acts of the new parliament ? What 
is said of Strafibrd's defence ? 
24 



278 ENGLAND. 

minister and the firmest supporter of the prerogative of the 
crown. 

11. The contention between the King and the Parliament 
from this period began to wear a more alarming aspect, until 
at last both parties resolved to decide the issue of the contest 
by an appeal to the sword. And thus the standard of civil 
war was unfurled during the year 1642. 

The first serious overthrow of the royal forces happened 
at Marston Moor, where Charles and Prince Rupert were 
defeated by Oliver Cromwell, who commanded the parlia- 
mentary forces. After this victory Archbishop Laud, who 
had remained a prisoner in the Tower since the impeachment 
of Strafford, was brought to trial, condemned, and executed ; 
and on the same day the liturgy of the Church of England 
was abolished, and the rigid principles of Puritanism estab- 
lished in its place. 

12. After the war had raged about five years, the Royal- 
ists were entirely defeated in the battle of Naseby, and 
Charles very imprudently surrendered himself to the Scot- 
tish army, by which he was basely delivered into the hands 
of the Parliament for the sum of £400,000. In the House 
of Commons a vote was passed declaring it treason in a 
King to levy war against his Parliament, and instituted a 
high court of justice, composed of one hundred and thirty- 
three members, to try Charles for that offence. This measure 
was rejected by the House of Lords, but the Commons, sup- 
ported by the parliamentary army, disregarded their dissent 
and issued an order for the trial. The King, having been 
arraigned before this self-created tribunal, refused to answer 
any questions put to him, disavowed its legality, and denied 
its jurisdiction ; but all was of no avail ; his enemies thirsted 
for his blood, and nothing less than his death would satisfy 
their vengeance. The trial proceeded. Charles was found 
guilty, and the sentence of death was pronounced against 
him as a tyrant, traitor, and murderer. 

13. The unfortunate monarch bore the sentence of death, 
and all the unworthy treatment he received at his trial, with 
a degree of fortitude that excited the admiration even of his 
enemies. Permission was given him to see his children. 

1 1 . What did the contention between the king and the parliament 
begin to wear ? When did the war break out ? Where was the first 
overthrow? After this victory, what is said of Archbishop Laud? — 
12. Where were the royalists defeated, and what did Charles do ? What 
was done in the House of Commons ? What did they refuse ? What 
was the issue of the trial ? — 13. How did he bear the sentence? 



ENGLAND. 279 

He took his last leave of them with tenderness and affection, 
and spent the short respite that was allowed him in private 
devotions with Juxton, Bishop of London, in order to pre- 
pare himself for the trying scene through w^hich he was 
about to pass. On reaching the scaffold, which was erected 
before Whitehall, he surveyed the preparations with a coun- 
tenance undismayed, addressed a few words to those who 
were near him, declared his innocence, and freely forgave 
his enemies. He then laid his head upon the block, and at 
the first stroke of the axe it was severed from the body. 
Such was the unhappy end of Charles I., in the forty-ninth 
year of his age and twenty-fourth of his reign. 

14. If we take a survey of this period, we will find much 
to admire and much to condemn. That Charles had com- 
mitted errors in the administration of the government is 
obvious to all ; but that these errors were such as to sanc- 
tion the proceedings against him, few are willing to admit. 
That many of those who first opposed his arbitrary meas- 
ures were actuated by a sense of justice and a desire of 
maintaining the libertfes of the people may be admitted ; 
while the result will show that there were others who only 
aimed at hurling the monarch from his throne that they 
themselves might exercise his arbitrary principles. The 
House of Commons ordered a new Great Seal to be made, 
bearing the words, " On the first year of freedom, by God's 
blessing, restored, 1648." The King's statue in the Ex- 
change was thrown down, and on the pedestal was inscribed, 
Exit tyrannus, Begum ultimus — the tyrant is gone, the last 
of the kings. 

15. After the death of the King the Commons proceeded 
to abolish the monarchy and the House of Lords, and to 
establish a republican form of government. A proclamation 
was issued, stating that the supreme authority of the nation 
was vested in the representatives of the people, and it should 
be high treason to give to any person the title of king with- 
out the consent of Parliament. Nothing, perhaps, in the 
history of this period is more remarkable than the sudden 
revolutions in religion. After the execution of Laud, we 
have seen that the Anglican Church was abolished and 
Bresbyterianisni established in its stead. We are now to 

How did he take leave of his children ? On reaching the scaffold, 
what did he do ? When was he executed ? — 14. What is said of Charles 
and of those engaged in his death ? What did the House of Commons 
order? — 15. After the king's death, what did the Commons do? What 
was issued ? 



280 ENGLAND. 

behold the Presbyterian interest decline in favor of the In- 
dependents, who began to gain the ascendency. Through 
the management of Cromwell, the power which had been 
vested in the King was transferred to the army, and meas- 
ures were taken to exclude the Presbyterians from Parlia- 
ment. In this manner the Presbyterians, who had been 
instrumental in subverting the church and throne, fell victims 
to the power of the army, through whose agency they had 
accomplished their designs. 

16. The people of Ireland and Scotland were still faithful 
in their allegiance to the fallen monarch, and unfurled the 
royal standard in favor of his son, Charles II. Cromwell, 
having procured for himself the appointment of commander- 
in-chief of the forces directed against Ireland, landed at 
Dublin ; thence he proceeded to Brogheda, which was well 
fortified, and garrisoned with three thousand men, under 
the command of Sir Arthur Aston. The place was finally 
taken by a furious assault, and only one of all the garrison 
escaped the barbarous massacre that followed. After this 
the country submitted to his authority. 

It. He next marched into Scotland at the head of sixteen 
thousand men, defeated the royalists at Dunbar, overthrew 
them again in the desperate battle of Worcester, and com- 
pletely established the sovereignty of the Parliament. After 
this battle young Charles, having with difficulty escaped 
from the scene of defeat, assumed the disguise of a peasant, 
and travelled in the least frequented roads, pursuing his 
journey by night, and frequently passing the day in obscure 
cottages. On one occasion he passed the day concealed in 
the branches of a large oak ; while in this situation he heard 
and saw his pursuers passing beneath him. After many 
adventures he efTected his escape to France. 

18. At this period the republic astonished all Europe by 
the brilliancy of its naval achievements. The famous navi- 
gation act, which prohibited any state from carrying into 
England any commodity which was not the growth or man- 
ufacture of the country to which the vessel belonged, pro- 
duced a war with Holland, in which Admiral Blake obtained 

What are we now to behold ? What was effected through the influ- 
ence of Cromwell? — 16. What is said of the people of Ireland and 
Scotland? Of Cromwell? After taking Drogheda, what followed? — 
17. Where did he next march? After this battle, what is said of 
young Charles? On one occasion how did he pass the day? — 18. At 
this period, what is said of the repubUc ? What did the navigation act 
produce ? 



ENGLAND. 281 

a great naval victory over the celebrated Dutch commanders, 
Van Tromp and De Ruyter. 

19. The Parliament, which had been in session for eleven 
years, and known by the. name of the Long Parliament, 
attempted to reduce the army, with a view of diminishing 
the power of Cromwell, who, perceiving their design, and 
being secure of the attachment of the soldiery, resolved to 
wrest the sovereign power from their hands. An unfavor- 
able reply being returned to a petition which he sent to 
Parliament, he rose in a violent rage, and taking with him 
a strong guard, he entered the house with marks of indigna- 
tion in his countenance, and after loading the members with 
reproaches, he cried out, '' For shame ; get hence ; give place 
to honest men. I tell you, you are no longer a Parliament; 
the Lord has done with you." Having turned them out, he 
ordered the doors to be locked, and, taking the keys, he de- 
parted to his residence at Whitehall. 

20. This fanatical despot then called a new Parliament in 
quite a novel form. He took the census of the Congrega- 
tional churches in the several counties, and reported the 
names of such persons as were deemed qualified to fill the 
high office; of these, one hundred and sixty-three represent- 
atives were selected, and on the day appointed presented 
themselves, to the number of one hundred and twenty, in 
the council chamber at Whitehall. This body, composed of 
men imbued with all the wild fanaticism of the time, received 
the name of the Barehone Parliament from^one of its lead- 
ing members, who bore the singular name' of Praise-God 
Barehone. The Barebone Parliament, after a session of a 
few months, resigned all their authority into the hands of 
Cromwell, a measure which he had probably intended or 
expected. The Parliament immediately dissolved, and the 
officers of the army, by their sole authority, declared Crom- 
well Protector of the Commonwealth of England. 

21. The Protector entered on the duties of his new office 
with energy and ability. He was assisted by a council of 
twenty-one members ; declined the title of Majesty, but re- 
ceived that of Highness ; refused the title of King, although 
he possessed the power and assumed all the ensigns of 



19. What is said of the parliament? An unfavorable reply being 
returned to a petition, what did Cromwell do ? What did he cry out ? 
— 20. How did he call a new parliament? What name did this body 
receive? What did the officers of the army do? — 21. What is said of 
the Protector? What title did he receive ? 
24* 



282 ENGLAND. 

royalty. His administration, however, advanced the mili- 
tary glory of England. Abroad his fleets and armies were 
victorious ; he obliged the Dutch to sue for peace and hum- 
bled the power of Spain. 

22. Having attained the height of his ambition, Crom- 
well found that his situation was by no means enviable. 
The nation despised the man, who, under the pretence of 
espousing the liberties of the people, had aspired to unlimited 
power. He was aware of this hatred, and the dread of 
assassination caused him to wear armor under his clothes. 
His health began to decline, and he was at length seized 
with a fever, which terminated his life, in the fifty -ninth 
year of his age, a. d. 1658. 

23. His son, Richard Cromwell, who inherited neither 
the abilities nor the ambition of his father, was proclaimed 
Protector in his place ; but, after holding the oflBce for a few 
months, he resigned the title and retired to private life. A 
military despotism for some time succeeded, the army direct- 
ing the affairs of government at will. At length General 
Monk, who then commanded an army in Scotland, marched 
into England, crushed the contending factions, and caused 
a new Parliament to be assembled. After the meeting of 
the members, some time intervened before the King was 
mentioned. At length they were informed that a messenger 
was at the door with a letter from the King to the Com- 
mons. The letter was received and read, the Parliament 
assented to the proposals, and in this manner Charles II. 
was restored to his kingdom and to the throne of his father, 
A. D. 1660. 

24. The whole demeanor of Charles at the commencement 
of his reign was such as to inspire the affection of his sub- 
jects, and to render him generally popular. He was in the 
thirtieth year of his age, possessing a handsome exterior, 
familiar and affable in his manners; but at the same time 
much inclined to indolence and pleasure. An act of general 
indemnity was passed, except to those immediately con- 
cerned in the late King's death. Accordingly, Harrison, 
Scott, Jones, and several others engaged in the trial of his 
father, were executed. But the vengeance of the King 

What is said of his administration?— 22. What did Cromwell find? 
What did the nation do? When did he die? — 23. Who was pro- 
claimed Protector in his place? What did he do? What succeeded? 
What is said of General Monk ? Of what was parliament informed ? 
How was the letter received ? — 24. What was the demeanor of Chaxles ? 
What act was passed ? Who were executed ? 



ENGLAND. 283 

passed from the living to the dead. The bodies of Crom- 
well, Bradshaw, and Ireton were dug up from their graves, 
and, after hanging for some time, were cut down and buried 
under the gallows. 

25. Charles was soon distinguished for the same arbitrary 
principles which seemed hereditary in the family of the 
Stuarts. The doctrine of passive obedience and non- 
resistance now came into use; from which originated the 
distinguishing epithets of Whigs and Tories. The former 
opposed the pretensions of the crown, the latter were its 
advocates. A new parliament was assembled, consisting 
chiefly of high churchmen and loyalists; the Anglican 
church was restored, and an act of conformity in religion 
was passed. 

26. The next year Charles married Catherine of Por^w^aZ, 
and with her obtained a dowry of five hundred thousand 
pounds, a sum which greatly relieved his present necessities. 
But his prodigality kept him always in want. He bar- 
tered away Dunkirk, which had been acquired by Crom- 
well, to the French for four hundred thousand pounds 
sterling, which was soon squandered on his pleasures. He 
soon after this declared war against the Dutch, which con- 
tinued to rage for several years, until at length a treaty of 
peace was concluded, by which the Dutch ceded the colony 
of New York to the English. 

2Y. During this war London was visited with a plague, 
which carried off ninety thousand of its inhabitants ; and in 
the following year a fire took place by which thirteen 
thousand houses were laid in ruins. To perpetuate the 
calamity, a monument was erected, bearing an inscription, 
falsely charging the Catholics as the authors of the con- 
flagration. This lying inscription was erased in the early 
part of the present century by order of the British Par- 
liament. 

28. Towards the close of the reign of Charles, the Whigs 
having the ascendency in Parliament, distinguished them- 
selves by their hostility to the Catholics, and insisted on the 

What was done with the bodies of Cromwell, etc. ? — 25. For what was 
Charles soon distinguished? What doctrine now came into use, and 
what epithets originated from it ? What is said of the new parliament ? 
— 26. Whom did Charles marry ? What did he barter away ? What 
war was declared? How did it terminate? — 27. By what was London 
visited ? In the following year what took place ? To perpetuate the 
calamity, what was erected ? — 28. How did the Whigs distinguish them- 
selves? 



284 ENGLAND. 

King's assent to a bill for the exclusion of his brother, the 
Duke of York, who had lately embraced the Catholic Faith. 
To this highly unjust and unnatural measure Charles could 
not consent, and in consequence dissolved two successive 
Parliaments. A pretended plot was discovered by the in- 
famous Titus Oates, (a man guilty of almost every crime 
in the catalogue of human vices,) which occasioned the un- 
just execution of Lord Stafford and several other eminent 
Catholics. Another conspiracy was shortly after detected, 
in favor of reform, called the Rye-house plot, in which Lord 
Russel and Algernon Sidney were accused of being con- 
cerned. They were brought to trial, found guilty, and be- 
headed. 

29. The King himself did not long survive these acts of 
severity, being seized with an apoplexy, he died in the fifty- 
fifth year of his age and twenty-fifth of his reign. Shortly 
before his death, he sent for a Catholic clergyman, and re- 
ceived the Sacraments from his hands. During the reign of 
Charles, the famous act of Habeas Corpus was passed, by 
which persons were freed from arbitrary imprisonment. The 
most distinguished poets of this period were Milton, Waller, 
Cowley, Butler, Dryden, and Roscommon. A remarkable 
instance of longevity is mentioned of Thomas Parr, a labor- 
ing man in Yorkshire, who had lived in ten reigns, and 
completed one hundred and sixty years. 

30. As Charles had left no legitimate issue, his brother, 
the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne, under the title of 
James II., with every mark of public approbation, notwith- 
standing his open profession of the Catholic Faith. It is 
probable that James might have reigned in tranquillity, and 
have ended his days on the throne of his ancestors, had it 
not been for his own imprudence, and the unfortunate choice 
he made of his ministers. The early part of his reign was 
disturbed by the rebellion of the Duke of Ilonmouth, who 
aimed at seizing the crown. Encouraged by the Prince 
of Orange and Sunderland, the perfidious minister of James, 
the Duke landed in England, caused himself to be pro- 
claimed King, and unfurled his standard at Taunton. After 
wearing the empty title of royalty for a few weeks, he was 

What pretended plot was discovered ? What other conspiracy was 
detected ? Who where accused of being concerned in it ? — 29. How 
did the king die? What act was passed in his reign? Who were 
distinguished poets? What is said of Parr? — 30. Who succeeded to 
the throne? By what was the early part of his reign disturbed? What 
was the fate of Monmouth ? 



ENGLAND. 285 

defeated, taken prisoner, and atoned for his rebellion on the 
scaffold. 

31. A special commission was issued to Jeffrys, the Lord 
Chief Justice, for the trial of the rebel prisoners. Jeffrys, 
in the execution of his commission, is represented as guilty 
of wanton cruelty ; for although there was no doubt of the 
guilt of the accused, yet the number of those who suffered 
made the acts of public justice assume the appearance of 
cruelty and revenge, while all the odium of these severities 
fell upon the King. 

32. James, now finding himself firmly seated upon the 
throne, proceeded to a measure that did not fail to excite the 
disaffection of a great number of his subjects. As he had 
openly professed the Catholic Faith, it was his ardent wish 
to restore the ancient religion of the kingdom. By way of 
preparation for this important step, the King, on the 4th of 
April, 1687, from his royal prerogative, issued a proclamation, 
granting to all his subjects entire liberty to worship God 
according to the dictates of their own conscience. This 
indulgent grant, so honorable to the sovereign, so desirable 
on the part of a free people, and so suitable to the mild spirit 
of Christianity, was joyfully received by the Catholics and 
dissenters of all denominations; by others, it was loudly 
censured, as tending to overthrow the national church estab- 
lished by law, which they still conceived necessary for its 
support. 

33. Another proclamation granting full liberty of con- 
science followed during the April of 1688, which was ordered 
to be read in every church and chapel in the kingdom after 
the service had ended. This order occasioned considerable 
opposition, and six of the bishops, who resisted the mandate, 
were immediately committed to the Tower and indicted for 
disobedience. 

34. The contest with the bishops completed the King's un- 
popularity. His enemies, without being suspected, had pre- 
pared the kingdom for a general revolt ; they secretly applied 
for aid to the Prince of Orange, the son-in-law of James, 
and offered him the crown as the reward of his services. On 
receiving this invitation, William, with the utmost haste, 

31. To whom was a commission issued? How is Jeffrys represented? 
— 32. What is said of James? What was his wish ? In 1687, what did 
he issue? How was this grant received? — 33. In 1688, what followed? 
What did the order occasion? — 34. What did his enemies do? To 
whom did they apply ? On receiving the invitation, what did William 
do? 



286 ENGLAND. 

fitted out a fleet of five hundred sail, carrying four thousand 
men, and landed in England. In a few days he was joined 
by the greater part of the English army ; and James found 
himself deserted, even by those who owed all to his bounty. 
Among others who left him in the hour of distress was his 
favorite daughter Anne, who secretly withdrew to join the 
standard of the man who had invaded the dominions of her 
father, and was about to snatch the crown from his brow. 

35. At the news of the ungrateful conduct of the daughter 
whom he tenderly loved, his constancy gave way, and in 
bitter anguish he exclaimed, "God, help me ! my own children 
have forsaken me in my utmost need." Having previously 
sent his Queen and infant son, the Prince of Wales, to the 
French court, he shortly after followed, leaving his kingdom 
in the power of his rival. 

36. After the King's departure, a convention met, consist- 
ing of members of the House of Commons during the reign of 
Charles II., as those of James were deemed illegal. They 
declared that James, by quitting the kingdom, had deserted 
the people, — although it was evident that the people had 
deserted him, — and that the throne was vacant. They passed 
a bill excluding the Catholics from office, and settled the 
crown on the Prince of Orange and the Princess, and their 
heirs ; but the administration of the government was placed 
in the hands of the Prince alone. 

37. After some time spent in France, James resolved to 
make an effort to regain his crown, through the loyalty of 
the people of Ireland, who still adhered to his interest. Hav- 
ing arrived at Kinsale, he made a public entry into Dublin, 
amidst the acclamations of the inhabitants. In the year 1690 
was fought the famous battle of the Boyne, between the 
forces of the King and those of his rival, William. The 
battle was maintained for some time with equal bravery on 
both sides ; at length, owing to the pusillanimity of James, 
who, seeing his forces gaining some advantage over their 
opponents, cried out, "to spare his English subjects," the 
scale of victory turned in favor of William. 

38. James fled from the scene of defeat and escaped to 



In a few days, how did James find himself? Who left him, among 
others? — 35. At the news of this defection, what did he exclaim? 
Where did he send his queen and son? — 36. After the king's departure, 
what was done? What did they declare? What did they pass? — 37. 
After some time, what did .James resolve? What took place in 1690? 
What did James exclaim? What was the issue of the battle? — 38. 
What did James do ? 



ENGLAND. 287 

France, where he remained a pensioner on the bounty of 
the French king. The exiled monarch passed the remainder 
of his days at Saint Germains, where he gained the esteem 
of all who knew him, for his exemplary piety and for his 
mildness and affability. He died in the sixty -eighth year of 
his age, a. d. 1101. 

William of Orange was naturally of a feeble constitution, 
which he endeavored to repair by exercise. As he rode from 
Hampton Court to Kensington, his collar-bone was fractured 
by falling from his horse; this was followed by a fever, 
which terminated his life in the fifty-second year of his age 
and the fourteenth of his reign. His reign was memorable 
for the establishment of the Bank of England. 

39. On the death of William, the crown devolved upon 
Anne,, the second daughter of James II., who had married 
George, Prince of Denmark. On coming to the throne, she 
communicated to the Houses of Parliament her determi- 
nation of declaring war against France. In conjunction 
with Germany and Holland, war was accordingly declared. 
The Duke of Marlborough, one of the greatest generals 
of his age, was appointed commander-in-chief of the allied 
army. PiHnce Eugene commanded the imperial forces. 
After the power of Louis XIY. had been considerably 
weakened by the several victories of Blenheim, Ramilles, 
Oudenarde, and Malplaquet, gained by the allied armies, the 
war was terminated by the peace of Utrecht, in the year 
1713. 

40. The most memorable event of this reign was the union 
between England and Scotland, which destroyed the Scottish 
parliament, and included the two countries under the common 
title of Great Britain. It was during the reign of Anne 
that Gibraltar was taken by the English, which has remained 
in their possession to the present time. At this period party 
spirit was carried to extremes, and distracted the kingdom 
during the greater part of her reign. The Queen's health 
had been for some time on the decline ; at length she passed 
from the turmoil and splendor of the palace to the humble 
quietude of the tomb, in the fiftieth year of her age and the 
thirteenth of her reign, a. d. IT 14. 

Where did he pass the remainder of his days? When did he die? 
What occasioned the death of William ? — 39. On whom did the crown 
now devolve ? What war was immediately declared ? Who was ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief ? What victories were gained ? How was 
the war terminated ? — 40. What was the most memorable event of her 
reign ? What was taken by the English ? When did the queen die ? 



288 ENGLAND. 

This period has been so prolific in men of literary genius, 
that it has been styled the Augustan Age of English letters. 
Some of the most distinguished names are those of Pope, 
Swift, Addison, Parnell, Rowe, and Gay. 



CHAPTER IX. 



HO USE OF BRUNSWICK: GEOROE I. ; GEORGE II. ; GEORGE 
III. ; GEORGE IV. ; WILLIAM IV.— FROM A. D. 1714 TO 1830. 

ON the death of Anne, George I., Elector of Hanover, suc- 
ceeded to the throne, with general approbation. The 
features of his reign were generally pacific, and afi'ord few 
events of importance in history. Upon assuming the reins 
of government, he attached himself to the Whig party, 
which had strenuously advocated his accession, and entered 
into violent measures against the late Tory ministry. 

2. A committee of investigation was appointed to inspect 
the papers relative to the treaty with France ; and Lord 
Bolingbroke, the Earl of Oxford, and the Earl of Mortimer, 
with several others of the Tory party, were impeached for 
high treason. These vindictive proceedings excited the in- 
dignation of the people, and the flame of rebellion broke out 
in Scotland. The Earl of Mar, at the head of ten thousand 
men, proclaimed the son of James II. as the lawful mon- 
arch of Great Britain. The rebellion, however, w^as soon 
crushed, and the most exemplary severity exercised against 
the leaders. Various Lords and Earls were impeached, and 
suffered death on the scaffold ; many others of inferior rank 
were executed, and about a thousand transported to North 
America. 

3. At this period a plan was devised for lessening the 
national debt, by lowering the interest, called the South Sea 
Scheme; the measure, however, gave a severe stroke to 
public credit, and ruined the fortunes of thousands. 

George died suddenly of a paralytic disorder, while on a 

What has this period been styled ? What were some of the most 
distinguished names? 

Chapter IX,— 1. Who succeeded to the throne? What is said of 
his reign ? — 2. What committee was appointed ? Who were impeached ? 
What did these proceedings excite ? What is said of the rebellion ? — 
3. At this time what was devised ? When did George die ? 



ENGLAND. 289 

visit to his electoral dominions of Hanover, in the sixty- 
eighth year of his age and the thirteenth of his reign, a. d. 
1121. 

4. George II., who succeeded his father in the forty-fourth 
year of his age, was a prince possessed of considerable 
abilities, of a violent temper, and distinguished in military 
exercise. Like his father, he inclined to the Whig party, 
and was particularly biassed in favor of his continental 
dominions, on account of which he involved England in an 
expensive war. The most prominent person in the admin- 
istration during the reign of George was Sir Robert Wal- 
pole, a man of eminent abilities, but accused by many as 
guilty of a system of corruption and venality which he 
practised while in office. 

5. The military operations during this reign were ex- 
tensive, and the British arms were generally triumphant. 
England espoused the cause of Maria Teresa of Austria 
against the Emperor Charles and Louis XY. of France. In 
this contest, called the war of the Austrian Succession, the 
principal states of Europe were involved. "Various was the 
success that attended the contending powers. The English, 
with their allies, under the command of George 11. in person, 
defeated the French in the celebrated battle of Dettingen, 
and the French, in their turn, under Marshal Saxe, gained 
the victory at Fontenoy. After war had raged for some 
time, peace was again restored by the treaty of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, and the claim of Maria Teresa to the throne was 
confirmed. 

6. During the absence of the King on the continent, 
Charles Edward, the eldest son of James II., assisted by 
Louis XY. of France, made a last and dying effort to regain 
the throne of his ancestors. He landed in Scotland, and 
placing himself at the head of an army, he defeated the 
royalists in the battles of Preston-Pans and Falkirk ; but 
on the 16th of April, 1*746, was fought the famous battle of 
Culloden, in which Charles was signally defeated by the 
royal forces under the Duke of Cumberland. By this battle 
the hereditary pretensions to the crown of England were for- 



4. Who succeeded ? To what was he inclined ? Who was the most 
prominent person in the administration ? — 5. What is said of the mili- 
tary operations of this reign ? What did England espouse ? What was 
this war called ? How was peace restored ? — 6. During the absence of 
the king, what took place? Where did he l^nd? What took place 
in 1746 ? 

25 T 



290 ENGLAND. 

ever extinguished. The Prince, after a series of adventures, 
escaped to France. 

Y. Towards the close of this reign, the war was again 
renewed between England and France, on account of the 
encroachments of the latter on the British colonies in 
America. The war was finally terminated by the surrender 
of all Canada on the part of France. It was during this 
war that the heroic General Wolf perished in the moment 
of achieving the capture of the city of Quebec. During their 
operations in America the British also carried on a war in 
India. 

8. George II. died in 1760, at his palace of Kensington, 
in the seventy-seventh year of his age and the thirty-third 
of his reign. His reign was distinguished for many eminent 
writers and men of genius ; among the poets may be men- 
tioned Young, Akenside, and Gray. 

9. George III., the grandson of the late monarch, suc- 
ceeded to the throne in the eighteenth year of his age. He 
commenced his reign at a favorable period, when the 
national arms were everywhere triumphant, and the ad- 
ministration of the government was directed by the genius 
of William Pitt, (Lord Chatham,) one of the most eminent 
and popular ministers in the annals of the nation. It was at 
this period that an oppressive and unjust course of policy 
was adopted by the British government towards her 
American colonies. Against these measures Pitt exerted 
all the power of his eloquence, but in vain. The colonies 
were finally driven into hostilities with the mother country, 
and Great Britain, after a long and expensive warfare, was 
compelled to acknowledge their independence."^ 

10. The other most important events of this reign were 
the extension of the British possessions in India, where 
Hyder Ali and his son distinguished themselves by their 
opposition to the encroachments of the English ; the Irish 
rebellion, which took place in 1798, and the subsequent 
union of Irelandf with Great Britain, and her long and 
sanguinary conflicts which grew out of the French Rev- 
olution. 

* See United Slates. f See Ireland. 

7. Towards the close of his reign, what took place ? How was it ter- 
minated ? During this war, what happened ? — 8. When did George 
II. die? Among the poets who stand pre-eminent? — 9. Who succeeded 
to the throne ? How did he commence his reign ? What took place at 
this period? What is said of Pitt? — 10. What were the other most 
important events of this reign ? 



ENGLAND. 291 

11. Some of the principal achievements of the British 
during this period were the famous naval victories of the 
Nile and Trafalgar, by Lord Nelson, and those of Tala- 
vera, Salamanca, Yittoria, and Waterloo, by Wellington. 
George died on the 29th of January, 1820, in the seventy- 
eighth year of his age, after a reign of sixty years, the 
longest we find in English history. During the last ten 
years of his life he was afflicted with insanity, which dis- 
qualified him for all public business, and his son, the Prince 
of Wales, acted as regent. The subversion of his intellect 
is supposed to have been brought on by the death of his 
favorite Amilia, aided by advanced age and toils of state. 
His natural endowments were not great, although a good 
monarch and much beloved by his subjects. 

12. George lY., who succeeded to the throne, was a 
prince in some respects able and accomplished. The early 
part of his life, however, was distinguished for unrestrained 
dissipation and prodigality. His reign was generally peace- 
ful and prosperous. Some of the most important events 
were the war in India, by which the English gained a great 
part of the Burman Empire ; the celebrated trial of his Queen 
in the House of Lords for misconduct ; the interposition i^ 
favor of the Greeks in their struggle for independence, during 
which was gained the celebrated naval victory at Navarino, 
over the Turks, by the united fleets of England, France, and 
Russia ; and also the passage of the Catholic Relief Bill, by 
which the disabilities of the long and unjustly oppressed 
Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland were removed, and 
by which they were placed on an equal footing with mem- 
bers of the established church, vvith three exceptions : exclu- 
sion from the throne, and from the offices of Lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, Lord Chancellor of that kingdom, and of England. 

13. George lY. died at Windsor on the 26th of June, 
1830, in the sixty-eighth year of his age and the eleventh of 
his reign, and was succeeded in the throne by his brother, 
William, Duke of Clarence, under the title of William lY. 
His short reign was not distinguished for any important event ; 
and at his death, in 1831, he was succeeded by the Princess 
Yictoria, only child of the Duke of Kent. 

11. What were some of the achievements of the British during this 
period? When did George die? What is said of the last ten years of 
his life? Of his abilities?— 12. Who succeeded to the throne? What 
were some of the most important events of his reign? What are the 
three exceptions to the Catholic Relief Bill? — 13. When did George die, 
and by whom succeeded? At his death who succeeded? 



292 ENGLAND. 

CHAPTER X. 

THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA.— A. D. 1837 TO 1880. 

Its Changes — Agitations — Wars — Literature — Inventions 
— And General Progress. 

QUEEN Yictoria, at the age of eighteen, was crowned in 
June, 1838 ; and about a year and a half later, she was 
married to her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg. Her 
reign has been unusually long and eventful. 

2. The agitation for the repeal of the Union of Ireland to 
Great Britain had been going on for some time. At last a 
crisis came, and the progress of the movement was arrested. 
" The year 1843," said O'Connell, " is and shall be the great 
Repeal year." He organized huge meetings in Ireland; vast 
multitudes hung on his words. But the Government grew 
alarmed, had the great Agitator arrested, tried, and con- 
demned to fine and imprisonment. On O'ConnelPs appeal, 
however, to the House of Lords, the sentence was reversed, 
and he was set at liberty. 

3. It was towards the early part of the reign of Victoria 
that a memorable movement began in the Church of Eng- 
land. The University of Oxford was the centre of this reli- 
gious movement, and its leading spirit, John Henry New- 
man.* This great man became a Catholic in 1845, and soon 
he was followed by a host of Protestant scholars, lords, and 
ladies.f Since that time the Ancient Faith has been rapidly 
gaining ground in England, especially among the higher and 
better educated classes. 

4. The agitation on the subject of free trade led, in 1846, 
to the repeal of the Corn laws through the persevering efforts 
of Cobden and Bright. Grain of every kind was allowed to 

* Now Cardinal Newman. 

t During the last thirty-five years over two thousand graduates of 
Oxford and Cambridge and persons of rank in England have joined the 
Catholic Church. Among them are Cardinal Manning, Archbishop of 
Westminster, and the Marquis of Bute, Governor-General of India. 



Chapter X. — 1. When was Victoria crowned? Whom did she 
marry? — 2. What is said of the repeal of the Union and O'Connell? — 
3. What religious movement marks this reign ? Who was its leading 
spirit ? When did Newman become a Catholic, and what was the re- 
sult? — 4. What laws were repealed in 1846 ? 



ENGLAND. 293 

enter England free of duty. The famine in Ireland began 
with the partial loss of the potato crop in 1845. The misery 
increased fearfully in 1846 and 184T. Ireland starved, and 
over two millions of her brave but unhappy people died or 
fled to foreign lands. The Irish famine is the gloomiest 
chapter in the annals of the present reign. 

5. In 1850 Pius IX. restored the Catholic Hierarchy 
of England, and placed the learned Cardinal Wiseman at 
its head, appointing him Archbishop of Westminster. But 
the fanaticism of the whole country was aroused, and the 
supposed aggression of the Pope was fiercely denounced. 
During this period of stormy excitement a ridiculous Bill 
— known as The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill — passed both 
Houses of Parliament and received the royal signature. 
It forbade Catholic Bishops to take titles from the Sees 
they held in Great Britain and Ireland. But it was never 
put in force. It troubled nobody, and many years after, in 
1871, it was quietly repealed. 

6. We have already referred to the causes that led to the 
Crimean war.* France and England combined to aid Tur- 
key and to punish the ambitious designs of Russia. War 
was declared in the summer of 1854. In September, twenty- 
seven thousand English, thirty thousand French, and seven 
thousand Turks landed on the shores of the Crimea. The 
first battle was fought on the banks of the little river Alma. 
On the heights that fringed the river, the Russians in great 
strength had taken up a splendid position, under the com- 
mand of Prince Mentschikoft The allies, under Lord Rag- 
lan and Marshal St. Armand, made the attack with head- 
long courage, and at last carried all before them. It was an 
heroic scramble. The Russians fled. Other engagements 
followed at Balaklava and Inkermann. Reinforcements ar- 
rived, and the siege of the Russian stronghold, Sebastopol, 
was commenced. After a long and obstinate siege, the city 
fell in September, 1855 — not, however, before the Russians 
had made it another Moscow. Peace was restored by the 
Treaty of Paris, March, 1856. Russia was humbled, Tur- 

* See France, Chap. IX. 

When and how did the Irish famine begin? What was the unhappy 
result of this famine?— 5. What did Pius IX. do in 1850? Was Eng- 
land pleased at this step? What is said of the Ecclesiastical Titles 
Bill ? — 6. When did France and England declare war against Russia ? 
Describe the battle of Alma. What city stood a long and obstinate 
siege? When did it fall, and what is said of how the Russians left it? 
By what treaty wae peace restored ? 
25* 



294 ENGLAND. 

key allowed to live a little longer, and France and England 
had the barren honor of a few victories. 

Y. British rule in India received a rude shock in 1857. 
The army by which England maintained her authority over 
India was composed mainly of natives, to which the name 
of Se'poys was given. Dissatisfaction spread among these 
dusky troops, and soon ripened into excitement, open revolt, 
and scenes of terrible bloodshed. At Meerut the native 
regiments murdered their officers and many European women 
and children. The same horrors were perpetrated at Delhi, 
and the deposed native king raised his standard over the 
ancient palace of the Mogul. In a short time the sepoys 
mutinied at twenty-two different stations, and slaughtered 
every European that came in their way. But the barbarous 
massacre of European women and children at Cawnpore 
capped the climax of appalling horrors. After much hard 
fighting, however, the British troops overran the revolted 
districts. Delhi was besieged and retaken ; but the arms of 
England were darkened by a dreadful and indiscriminate 
massacre. The streets of the city were red with streams of 
blood. The rebellion was beaten to the ground by a policy 
of merciless retribution. Mutinied sepoys, when captured, 
were hung in squads upon any convenient tree, or were 
fastened to the muzzles of cannon, w^hose discharge shattered 
their bodies into fragments ! 

8. In 1857, France and England, after enduring much 
provocation, declared war against China. The frightened 
Emperor of that mysterious country soon hastened to sign 
a treaty of peace, which, however, with bad faith, he barely 
kept till the allies were out of sight. He again persecuted 
the Christians. But France and England sent another ex- 
pedition to China. The capital was taken in 1860, and a 
new and more advantageous treaty finally concluded. The 
humbled Chinaman was glad to grant all that was asked. 

9. By the stoppage of the supply of cotton in 1861, the 
American war was the cause of much injury to the com- 
merce of England. The English cotton-spinners were re- 
duced to misery, and their pitiable condition invited a relief 

7. Where did British rule receive a rude shock in 1857? "Who 
were the sepoys? What did they do at Meerut and Delhi? What 
is said of Cawnpore"' How did the British put doAvn the rebellion? 
How were captured sepoys punished ? — 8. Give an account of the war 
that France and England carried on against China. — 9. How did tlie 
American war injure the commerce of England? What is said of the 
cotton-spinners ? 



ENGLAND. 295 

in money and provisions, which was freely bestowed by both 
English and Americans. The successful laying of the ocean 
telegraphic cable in 1866 brought the two countries into more 
intimate relations. 

10. The unhappy condition of oppressed Ireland furnishes 
ceaseless diflBculties for English legislators. The Repeal 
movement died out with O'Connell, and the Young-Ireland- 
ers, who succeeded, soon ceased to be a political force. But 
an organization known as the Fenians took the place of 
both. Their membership was wide-spread, and their revo- 
lutionary movements kept the English government in a con- 
stant state of uneasiness, and brought down upon the people 
of Ireland the severest measures of repression. The cap- 
ture of Stephens, the Fenian chief, did not end the trouble. 
In 1865, numbers of Irishmen were convicted and sentenced 
to various degrees of punishment. Two years later, three 
brave men, Allen, Larkin, and O'Brien, were executed in 
England. Other points in relation to the Fenians are no- 
ticed in the chapters on Ireland and Canada. 

11. It must be said, however, that the fear inspired by the 
Fenian movement forced England to throw a few more 
crumbs of justice to Ireland. In 186t, the bigoted law ex- 
cluding Catholics from the office of Lord Chancellor of Ire- 
land, and forbidding Catholic mayors and judges to attend 
in their robes of office at their own places of worship, was 
repealed. The next step towards pacification was the dis- 
establishment of the Protestant Church in Ireland — a meas- 
ure which was effected in 1870. In the same year an 
amnesty was granted to a large number of the Fenian pris- 
oners. The English universities were opened to lay stu- 
dents of all creeds on equal terms in 1871 ; and during the 
following year, the settlement of the Alabama claims took 
place at the Conference of Geneva. England agreed to pay 
the United States three millions of pounds sterling.* 

12. For the last twenty years, the quarrels of England 

* The famous Confederate steamer Alabama left a British port and 
began her career of destruction on the shipping of the North. Our 
government held England responsible for all the damages that followed 
— hence the Alabama claims. 

Of the ocean telegraphic cable ? — 10. Eelate what is said of the Feni- 
ans. — 11. Had the Fenian movement any effect on England? What 
law was repealed in 1867 ? When was the Protestant Church dis-estab- 
lished in Ireland? What liberal step was taken by the English uni- 
versities in 1871 ? When and how were the Alabama claims settled? — 
12. What is said of the quarrels of England ? 



296 ENGLAND. 

have been petty and inglorious skirmishes with some bar- 
barous nation. In 1868, an expedition was sent to punish 
the Abyssinians. It was a war of one battle, and is chiefly 
memorable for its enormous cost. The rude Ashantees were 
also whipped. Then came the war with the Zulus, of the 
origin and early conduct of which England has the deepest 
reason to feel ashamed.* And, finally, the war with the 
Afghans has brought no glory to the arms of Britain. 

13. Remarks on English Literature, Science, and Educa- 
tion duping the Nineteenth Century. — The nineteenth cen- 
tury has been a bright and fertile age in English letters. 
Among the chief British writers of this period are : Scott, 
Byron, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey, Sidney Smith, 
Lingard, Carlyle, Dickens, Thackeray, Grote, Macaulay, 
Wiseman, Ruskin, Browning, Tennyson, Newman, and Man- 
ning. 

As distinguished writers on the natural and physical 
sciences, we may mention : Brewster, Faraday, Herschel, 
Owen, Miller, Darwin, Huxley, Tyndall, and Mivart. 

At the beginning of the present century, England was 
plunged in an abyss of ignorance. There were only three 
thousand three hundred and sixty-three schools in the king- 
dom. Forty per cent, of Englishmen and sixty-five per 
cent, of English women were unable to write their names. 
But schools have multiplied. Education is now compulsory, 
and the number of people that can read and write has greatly 
increased. 

For England this has been truly an age of progress. When 
the battle of Waterloo was fought, it took the despatches 
three days to reach London. The first line of telegraph was 
constructed in 1831. Shortly after Fulton's invention, 
steamboats were seen plying on the rivers of Scotland and 
England. The Atlantic was crossed by steamers in 1838. 
Stephenson's steam-engine ran on the Liverpool and Man- 
chester railway in 1830 ; and Sir Rowland Hill invented 
postage-stamps, which first came into use in 1839. Eighty 

* It was during the petty struggle with the Zulus that the young 
Prince Imperial, son of Napoleon III., was killed, June 1, 1879. 



13. Has the nineteenth centuiy enriched English letters? Name 
some of the chief British writers of this age. Mention some distin- 
guished scientists. What is said of education in England? Has this 
been an age of progress in England ? When was the first line of tele- 
graph constructed? The first steam-engine? When were postage- 
stamps first used ? 



ENGLAND, 297 

years ago newspapers could only be multiplied by a rude 
printing-press, which could turn out no more than one hun- 
dred and fifty copies per hour ; now, a machine, driven by 
steam, is fed with huge rolls of paper, and gives out news- 
papers, cut and folded, at the rate of twenty-five thousand 
copies per hour.* 

* For a fuller account of English history, see Lingard's History of 
England, abridged by Burke ; and Justin MacCarthy's History of Our 
Own Times. 

What is said of the improved printing-press ? 



BOOK YIII 
SCOTLAND. 



CHAPTER I. 

SCOTLAND IN EARLY TIMES, 

THE early history of Scotland is greatly involved in fable 
and obscurity. The claim of the Scotch to a regular suc- 
cession of kings from the time of Alexander the Great seems 
entitled to little credit. Fergus I. they consider as the founder 
of their monarchy, and he is said to have been the first who 
displayed on his banner the royal emblem of Scotland — 
namely, a red lion with his tail folded on his back, the atti- 
tude which that noble animal assumes when roused to anger. 
When the Romans took their final leave of England, in 410, 
the people of Scotland were divided into a number of hostile 
tribes, the principal of which were the Scots and Picts ; the 
latter was subdued by Ken'neth II., who became King of 
all Scotland, a. d. 843.* 

* The original Scots were an Irish colony that conquered a portion of 
Caledonia and settled there. Ireland, it must be remembered, was 
called Scotia in early ages, and its inhabitants Scots. King Niall of the 
Kine Hostages, monarch of Ireland at the close of the fourth century, 
was the first who gave the name of Scotia Minor, or " Little Scotia," to 
Scotland. Before that "Scotland" went by the name of Alba. The 
Scots (or Irish) and the Picts lived as good neighbors till about the year 
840, when Kenneth II., King of the Scots, defeated the Picts. About 
the year 900 the Scots became masters of the rest of the country, and 
from" that time all North Britain took the name of Scotland, or land of 
the Scots. At a somewhat later period, Ireland gradually lost the name 
of Scotia, which was thus AvhoUy transferred to the neighboring coun- 
try that she had conquered and colonized. Such, in brief, was the origin 
of the name Scotland. Nearly all the great old Scottish families — as 
the MacDonalds, Campbells, Murrays, etc. — are lineal descendants of 
the ancient Irish that colonized and became masters of North Britain. 
— Little Lives of the Great Saints, by John O'Kane Murray, M. A., M, D. 

Chapter I.— 1. What is said of the history of Scotland ? Whoni do 
they consider as the founder of their monarchy ? What is said of him ? 
How were the people divided ? By whom were the latter subdued ? 

298 



SCOTLAND. 299 

2. Little of importance or interest occurs in the history 
of the country from the time of Kenneth until the reign of 
Alexander III. Upon the death of Alexander a number of 
competitors for the crown appeared, among whom Robert 
Bruce and John Ba'liol seemed to have the nearest claim. 
They were both descended from David, Earl of Huntington, 
third son of David I. To avoid, however, the miseries of 
civil war, they resolved to refer the case to Edward I. of 
England as umpire, and submit to his decision. Edward 
finding Baliol the more obsequious, decided in his favor, and 
Baliol consented to receive the crown as a vassal of Eng- 
land. 

3. But the fierce and warlike barons could not brook the 
passive spirit of John, and the encroachment of their liberty 
by the English monarch. A war ensued between the two 
kingdoms. Edward marched into Scotland at the head of 
a powerful army, and, after defeating the Scots in a battle 
near Dunbar, reduced the whole country to subjection. The 
weak and timid spirit of Baliol induced him to surrender the 
crown into the hands of the English king. 

4. At this critical juncture, when the liberties of Scotland 
lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror, the dying energies 
of the nation were roused by the valor and patriotism of Sir 
William Wallace. The deeds of this hero are, in many in- 
stances, colored with fiction ; yet, divested of all their em- 
bellishments, they remain sufficiently great to render him 
worthy of the exalted name of patriot. He almost single- 
handed ventured to take up arms in defence of the kingdom, 
and by his boldness revived the spirit of his countrymen. 
He persuaded Robert Bruce to assert the right and vindi- 
cate the honor of his country. The Scots flocked to the 
standard of Bruce, who, after a variety of victories, suc- 
ceeded in restoring the independence of his country, and was 
elevated to the throne, A. d. 1306. 

5. Edward again made preparations for invading Scotland, 
and had advanced as far as Carlisle, when he suddenly died. 
In the reign of his successor was fought, near Stei^ling, the 
famous battle of Bannockbu7^n. It was in 1314. Edward 
commanded the English forces in person, and Robert Bruce 

2. On the death of Alexander, what took place ? To avoid civil war, 
what did they resolve ? What did Edward do ? — 3. What is said of 
the barons? What ensued ? What did Edward do ? — 4. At this critical 
juncture, what took place? What is said of his deeds? What did he 
persuade Bruce ? What is said of the Scots ? 5. In the reign of his 
successor, what battle was fought ? Give the date of it. 



300 SCOTLAND. 

those of Scotland. The engagement terminated in the signal 
defeat of the English army, and firmly established the vic- 
torious Bruce on the throne of his ancestors.* Bruce died in 
1329, and was succeeded by his son, David II., at the age 
of four years. During his minority, the Earl of Murray 
was appointed Regent of the kingdom, and fulfilled the duties 
of his station with justice and moderation. 

6. About the year 1331, Edward Ba'liol, the son of John 
Baliol, taking advantage of the King's minority, began to 
bring forward pretensions to the crown. Aided by many of 
the English barons, he landed in Scotland and defeated the 
Earl of Mar, who had succeeded Murray in the office of 
Regent. Baliol was immediately crowned King, and ac- 
knowledged the English monarch as his superior. Thus was 
Scotland a second time reduced to a state of dependence and 
subjection to England. 

t. The spirit of freedom which had so long characterized 
the Scots slumbered for a season, but was not extinguished. 
The faithful adherents of the deposed King watched the earli- 
est opportunity to strike for the liberty of their country, and 
to shake off the hateful English yoke. At length the Scot- 
tish valor prevailed. Baliol was expelled from the country, 
and David II. was again restored to the throne, a. d. 1341. 

8. David was a weak but virtuous prince, and passed 
through many reverses of fortune. He was taken prisoner 
by the English in the battle of Durham, and remained in cap- 
tivity for eleven years ; but he was at length ransomed by his 
subjects, and died in 1370. He was succeeded by his nephew, 
Rohei^t Stuart, the first of that family who swayed the sceptre 
of Scotland. The race of the Stuarts is, perhaps, the most 
unfortunate in the annals of history ; with few exceptions, 
they all became the victims of some ill-fated or tragical end. 

* At this famous battle the English army numbered one hundred 
thousand men ; the Scotch and their Irish allies, thirty thousand. The 
English lost a large portion of their army, and it was with difficulty 
that Edward saved himself by flight. The body of brave Irish archers 
sent by Donald O'Neill, King of Ulster, to aid Bruce — among whom 
were a number of O'Kanes — seem to have made a deep impression on 
the English, for the poet, Chaucer, writes : 

" To Albion Scots we ne'er would yield — 
The Irish bowmen won the field.'' 

How did it terminate ? When did Bruce die ? By whom was he 
succeeded?— 6. In the year 1331 what took place ? What followed? — 
7. What is said of the spirit of freedom ? Of Baliol ?— 8. What is said 
of David ? By whom was he succeeded ? 



SCOTLAND. 301 



CHAPTER II. 

THE HOUSE OF STUART: FROM ROBERT II. TO JAMES VI. 
—A. D. 1370 TO 1603. 

ROBERT IL, a prince characterized for the mildness of 
his disposition, was quite unequal to the task of man- 
aging his fierce and ungovernable subjects. His reign was 
marked by a series of contests which took place between the 
English and Scottish borderers. The great families of Doug- 
las and Percy, whose estates lay near each other, were at 
continual variance. On one occasion they met at Otterhurn. 
An obstinate battle ensued, in which the English were 
routed, but the Earl of Douglas was slain. It is said that 
the celebrated ballad of Chevy Chace was written to com- 
memorate the single combat between Douglas and Percy. 
Robert died in 1390, and was succeeded by his son, under 
the title of Robert III. 

2. The reign of this prince was rendered unhappy through 
the conduct of his turbulent nobles. The Duke of Albany, 
the brother of the King, a man of the greatest ambition and 
cruelty, having represented to Robert some misconduct of his 
son, prevailed on the King to deliver him into his custody. 
Having obtained possession of the person of the young prince, 
he conducted him to the castle of Falkland and cast him into 
a dungeon, where he died in a short time for want of food. 

3. Robert, now old and infirm, was unable to revenge this 
outrage; but having another son called James, then eleven 
years of age, he resolved to send him to France to avoid the 
power and cruelty of the Duke. On his way, the young 
prince unfortunately fell into the hands of the English, by 
whom he was taken to London, and by order of Henry com- 
mitted to the Tower. At the news of this disaster, Robert 
was so overpowered with grief that he died shortly after 
with a broken heart, a. d. 1405. 

4. James was detained eighteen years in captivity in 
England, during which time he adorned his mind with every 

Chapter II.— 1. What is said of Eobert II.? Of the Earls of 
Douglas and Percy ? On one occasion, what took place ? When did 
Robert die ? — 2. What is said of the reign of this prince ? Of the Duke 
of A Ibany ? Where did he conduct the young prince ? — 3. What is said 
of Robert ? On the way, what happened to the prince ? At the news, 
what is said of Robert ? — 4. How long was James detained in captivity ? 
26 



802 SCOTLAND. 

valuable accomplishment, and had leisure to learn the su- 
perior wisdom of the English laws and government. It was 
during this period that he wrote a poem,* which gives him 
a high place among the poets of the fifteenth century. In 
1424 he married Lady Joan Beaufort, the daughter of the 
Earl of Somerset. The young King of England presented 
him with a suit of gold cloth for the ceremony, after which 
he departed for Scotland, and was crowned the same year at 
Scone under the title of James I. 

5. James, on his arrival, found the affairs of Scotland very 
different from those of England. During the regency of 
Albany the kingdom was filled with great disorders, and the 
royal authority had fallen into utter contempt ; in every 
section of the country some barbarous chieftain ruled at 
pleasure, without regard to the authority of the King or the 
interest of the people. The first object of James was to curb 
the exorbitant power of the nobility. A law was passed in 
parliament, by which the leagues and combinations which 
rendered the nobles so powerful were declared illegal. He 
caused a number of the most refractory to be arrested and 
brought to trial. The King himself presided in person, dressed 
in his royal robes, with the sceptre and globe in his hand. 
The turbulent chiefs were found guilty and publicly executed. 

6. James having thus reduced order in his kingdom, and 
being a Prince of refined accomplishments and one of the 
most elegant scholars of his age, turned all his attention 
towards the improvement and civilization of his subjects. 
But the check that he had given to the power of the nobility 
had irritated the whole body, and they only waited a favor- 
able opportunity for conspiring against him. While holding 
a feast at Perth, he had taken up his abode at the Convent 
of Blackfriars, there being no palace or castle convenient, 
and had quartered his guards among the citizens. A con- 
spiracy was entered into, at the head of which appeared the 
Earl of Athol and Sir Robert Graham, and this was deemed 
a favorable moment for carrying it into execution. 

Y. The King had passed the 20th of February, 143t, in 

* The King's Quire. It contains one hundred and ninety-seven seven- 
lined stanzas. 

In 1424, what did he do? With what was he presented by the king 
of England ? — 5. On his arrival, how did he find the affairs of Scotland ? 
What was the first act of James ? What did he cause ? — 6, To what did 
James turn his attention? At Perth, where did he take up his abode? 
What was entered into against him? — 7. How did the king pass the 
20th of February? 



SCOTLAND. 803 

various amusements with his nobles and the ladies of his 
court, and was cheerfully conversing with his Queen and her 
attendants, when suddenly a noise was heard, and the flam- 
ing of torches was seen in the convent gardens. At the first 
alarm, the King, judging that his life was in danger, ordered 
the doors to be closed, while he endeavored to effect his 
escape. Lady Catharine Doug'las hastened to bolt the outer 
door at the hall, but not finding the bar, she resolutely 
pushed her arm through the staple, which was broken by 
the conspirators in forcing the door. Dunbar, a young noble- 
man who attempted to guard the antechamber, was struck 
dead ; and the Queen herself received several wounds from 
the assassins. James, who was remarkably strong and 
active, defended himself for some time with great resolution ; 
but at length, overpowered by numbers, he fell under re- 
peated blows of the conspirators. 

8. The traitors immediately retreated to the Highlands^ 
but by the unremitting exertions of his Queen they were all 
taken in the short space of a month, brought to trial, and 
executed. The Earl of Athol, to whom it had been predicted 
that he should die a king, was crowned with a red-hot 
diadem as king of traitors ; and after that horrible ceremony, 
he was beheaded. 

James I. was murdered in the forty-fourth year of his age 
and in the thirteenth of his reign. He was one of the wisest 
and most accomplished sovereigns that ever swayed the 
Scottish sceptre. 

9. James II. succeeded his father to the throne at the 
early age of six years, while the affairs of state were chiefly 
under the direction of Alexander Livingston and Sir William 
Crichton. 

At this period the house of Douglas had reached the 
height of its power. The Douglases were remarkable for 
their courage and military talents, also for the pomp of their 
retinue and the number of their armed followers. In 1438 
the Earl of Douglas died, leaving two sons, the eldest a 
youth of sixteen. Livingston and Crichton thought this a 
favorable opportunity for crushing forever the powerful 
house of Dovglas. With this intention they invited the 
young Earl and his brother to court, as companions for the 

At the first alarm, what was done ? What is said of Lady Catharine ? 
Of Dunbar ? Of James ?— 8. What is said of the traitors ? Of the Earl 
of Athol ? When did James die ? What was he ? — 9. Who succeeded ? 
In 1438, what took place? What is related of Livingston and Crich- 
ton, and what was the fate of the two sons of Douglas ? 



804 SCOTLAND. 

young King. Without suspecting the base design in con- 
templation, they accepted the invitation and set out with 
their attendants to Edinburgh castle. They were received 
with every mark of respect, especially by James, who had 
no suspicion of the treacherous intentions of his guardians. 
A splendid entertainment was given them, in the midst of 
which a party of armed men rushed into the apartment, and 
seizing upon the unsuspecting companions of James, dragged 
them into the court of the castle, where, undergoing a mock 
trial for the insolence of their ancestors, they were con- 
demned and beheaded. 

10. James II. is said to have been a handsome man, and 
of a quick, impetuous temper. His reign was distinguished 
by his strenuous efforts to humble the power of his haughty 
nobles. In 1460, he laid siege to the castle of Roxburgh for 
the purpose of recovering it from the hands of the English. 
During the siege, James ordered the artillery to fire upon 
the castle, when one of the guns burst, and killed him upon 
the spot, in the twenty-ninth year of his age. 

11. James III., who succeeded his father, possessed 
neither his abilities nor his talents. He secluded himself in 
the castle of Stirling, where he devoted himself to pursuits 
ill becoming a sovereign, and raised the indignation of his 
barons by his attachment to unworthy favorites. At length 
a powerful league was formed against him, which was 
joined by most of the southern lords. The King marched 
towards the north, and, having arrived at Stirling, was 
refused admittance by the governor. He then demanded his 
son, but was told that the young prince had been carried off 
by the rebel lords. 

12. Upon receiving this intelligence, the King immediately 
advanced at the head of thirty thousand men to meet the in- 
surgents. The army was arrayed in three divisions, the 
King himself commanding the rear. The battle commenced 
with fury on both sides, and for some time was sustained 
with equal success. At length the western borderers, 
charging with their long spears, bore down all before them. 
James, unable to stand the charge, turned and fled. As he 
retreated, he passed by a small hamlet near a mill ; his horse, 
taking fright at a woman who came out for water, suddenly 
turned and precipitated the King to the ground, who, being 

]0. What is said of James? How was he killed? — 11. Who suc- 
ceeded? What is said of him? What was formed against him? — 12. 
On receiving this intelligence what did the king do? Describe the 
battle. As he retreated, what happened ? 



SCOTLAND. 305 

heavily armed and stunned by the fall, was unable to rise. 
The people soon collected, and removed him into the mill. 
When he recovered, he called out for a priest. Being asked 
by the miller's wife who he was, he replied : " I was your 
King this morning." The woman, struck with surprise, 
hastened out and called loudly for a priest to attend the 
King. Upon this a stranger rode up and said : "I am a 
priest, lead me to the King." He was immediately introduced, 
and kneeling down, asked James if he thought he was dan- 
gerously injured. The King replied that he thought not, but 
in the mean time desired that his confession might be heard, 
and that he might receive absolution. ''This shall absolve 
you," replied the assassin, and drawing a poniard, plunged 
it into the breast of the unhappy monarch. And thus died 
James III., in the thirty-sixth year of his age. 

13. The throne was immediately occupied by his son and 
successor, James lY., a great and accomplished prince, re- 
spected by his nobles, and beloved by his subjects. He loved 
magnificence, and his court was renowned throughout 
Europe. He bitterly regretted his misfortune, in being 
compelled to appear in the field with the rebel lords ; and 
considering himself in a manner accessory to his father's 
death, he imposed upon himself a voluntary penance, which 
he continued to observe during the remainder of his life. He 
caused an iron girdle to be made, which he wore under his 
clothes ; and, as if desirous that his penance might increase 
with his age, he every year added a new link to its weight. 

14. In 1502, he married the princess Margai^et, daughter 
of Henry YII. of England, an accomplished and virtuous 
woman. James, who excelled in all the martial exercises, 
and particularly delighted in tilts and tournaments, was 
eager for an occasion to display his prowess. During the 
reign of Henry YIII., the harmony which had subsisted 
between England and Scotland began gradually to weaken, 
until at length it broke out into open rupture. James, con- 
trary to the advice of the ablest and most prudent of his 
ministers, and against every entreaty of his Queen, resolved 
upon the invasion of England. 

15. Having with much difBculty obtained the consent of 
Parliament, he gave orders for the forces of the kingdom 

Being asked who he was, what did he reply ? What was his end ? — 
13. By whom was the throne occupied? What did he regret? What 
did he cause? — 14. Whom did he marry? In what did he excel? 
During his reign, what was weakened ? — 15. When did he enter Eng- 
land? 

26 * U 



806 SCOTLAND. 

to meet him at Edinburgh. After having completed his prep- 
arations, the King, on the twenty-second of August, entered 
England at the head of his army, attended by the flower of 
the Scottish nobility, and pitched his camp on Flodden Field. 
Here he was met by the English army, commanded by the 
Earl of Surrey, who, confident of his superior strength, en- 
deavored to bring the Scottish King to an engagement. 

IG. After some mutual suspense, the signal for the battle 
was given, and the combatants on both sides rushed to the 
contest with equal vigor. At the first onset, the forces of 
James threw the right wing of the English into disorder ; 
but at that moment, Thomas Howard, at the head of his 
English division, bore down upon the Scots, while at the 
same time they were charged in the rear by Sir Edward 
Stanley. Dreadful was the carnage that now ensued. The 
King fought on foot in the thickest of the contest. His 
nobles, to whom he was dear, pressed and entreated him to 
escape. Night at length put an end to the conflict, during 
which the Scottish army silently withdrew, leaving the King 
and the flower of his nobility numbered among the slain. 

17. James Y., who succeeded his father, was then an in- 
fant of only a year old ; during his minority, the office of 
regency was conferred on the Duke of Albany. The Duke, 
however, being a native of France, and quite unacquainted 
with the manners and customs of Scotland, met with consider- 
able opposition from the turbulent nobles ; and after an un- 
successful struggle, he voluntarily resigned his office, and 
retired to France. The young King, now in his thirteenth 
year, assumed the reins of government, with eight persons 
appointed as his chief counsellors, of whom the Earl of Angus 
was the most prominent. James bore the empty title of 
King, while the ambitious Earl exercised the regal authority. 
His person was guarded by a body of one hundred men ; but 
all the higher offices of his household were filled by members 
of the Douglas family, and relatives of Angus. 

This was a restraint which the young monarch reluctantly 
bore, and waited every opportunity to free himself from the 
power of the Earl. Having at length effected his escape, he 
rode to Stirling, assembled around him his faithful adherents, 
and issued a proclamation, declaring any of the Douglas 

Where did he pitch his camp? — 16. After the signal was given, what 
is said of the combatants ? Describe the battle. What was the fate of 
James? — 17. By whom was he succeeded? In his thirteenth year, 
what did the king do ? What is said of his person ? Having efiected 
his escape, what did he do ? 



SCOTLAND. 307 

family a traitor who should dare to approach within twelve 
miles of his person. Angus and his adherents were accused 
of treason in Parliament, their goods were forfeited, and they 
themselves driven into exile. 

18. The education of James had been much neglected; 
his character was that of a great but uncultivated mind ; his 
passions were violent, yet he was distinguished for the affa- 
bility of his deportment. Henry YIII. having declared war 
against Scotland, James prepared to defend his dominions. 
At the approach of the Scottish army, the English retired. 
James proposed to pursue them ; but his barons resolutely 
refused to advance beyond their own borders. The King, 
mortified and disappointed, disbanded his army, and returned 
to his capital. Shortly after this, it was proposed to make 
an attack upon the English borders, and the troops for this 
purpose were placed under the command of Oliver Sinclair. 
But the barons, indignant to see a person of inferior rank 
placed over them, basely surrendered their whole army, con- 
sisting of ten thousand men, to the enemy, without the slight- 
est resistance. When the news of this event was brought 
to the King, he burst into a transport of rage ; after which 
a distressing melancholy seized upon his mind. While in this 
state, he was informed of the birth of his daughter, after- 
wards the unfortunate Queen Mary. At this news he ex- 
claimed : " It will end as it began. The crown came with a 
woman, it will go with one. How many miseries await this 
poor kingdom." These were his last words ; he expired of a 
broken heart, in the thirty-first year of his age, A. d. 1542. 



CHAPTER III. 



THE EVENTFUL AND UNFORTUNATE CAREER OF MARY, 
QUEEN OF SCOTS. 

MARY, Queen of Scots, so celebrated for her beauty and mis- 
fortunes, was but a few days old at the time of her father's 
death. Hamilton, Earl of Arran, was appointed regent of 

18. What was his character? What was done by Henry VIII.? 
What did James propose ? What did the barons do ? What after this 
was proposed ? What did the barons again do ? At this news, what is 
said of the king? Of what was he informed? What did he exclaim ? 

Chapter III. — 1. What is said of Mary, Queen of Scots ? 



308 SCOTLAND. 

the kingdom. Proposals were made, by Henry the YIII. of 
England, of marriage between the infant queen of Scots and 
his son Edward, who was then also a child. The proposals 
were rejected by the Scots, in consequence of which hostilities 
were declared by the two countries. The conflict was carried 
on for some time with various success. 

2. All prospects of a union between Mary and Edward 
being now at an end, it was resolved that she should form an 
alliance with the Dauphin of France, and should be sent to 
that country that she might be educated at the French Court. 
Accordingly, in 1648, the young queen, then in her sixth year, 
embarked for France, while her mother, Mary of Guise, was 
made Regent of Scotland, in place of Hamilton. On the death 
of Queen Mary of England, Elizabeth, her sister, succeeded 
to the throne of that country. But as the divorce between 
Henry and his first Queen had never been ratified by the 
Pope, the Catholics, naturally regarding Elizabeth, the 
daughter of Henry and Anne Boleyn, as illegitimate, looked 
upon the young Queen of Scotland, the grand-daughter of 
Margaret, Henry's sister, as the rightful heir to the English 
crown. Mary was induced to assert her claim. Money was 
even coined, on which Mary and Francis assumed the title 
and arms of England and Scotland. 

3. The so-called Reformers in Scotland, assisted by Eliza- 
beth, had taken up arms against the Queen Regent, and the 
English army, under the command of Lord Grey, having 
entered Scotland, was joined by the members of the congrega- 
tion from all parts of the kingdom. The Queen Regent, un- 
able to withstand their united forces, retired to the castle of 
Edinburgh, where she shortly after died. She was a princess 
possessed of great abilities and many amiable qualities. After 
her death, peace was restored and a treaty concluded, by 
which great concessions were made to the Reformers. Dur- 
ing the contest, many of the most splendid churches and 
beautiful buildings were demolished by the Protestants. The 
abbeys and monasteries, with the cells of the monks, were 
levelled to the ground by a generation of destroying fanatics. 

4. In 1560, Francis II. of France died ; after which Mary 
resolved to return to her native kingdom. During her resi- 

What proposals were made, and how were they received ? — 2. All 
prospects of a union being ended, wliat was resolved ? As the divorce, 
etc., had never been ratified, what did the Catholics regard and look 
upon ? Wliat was Mary induced to do ? — 3. What is said of the Re- 
formers ? Of the queen regent ? During the contest, what took place ? — 
4. In 1560, what happened? What did Maiy resolve to do? 



SCOTLAND. 809 

dence in France, her education had been particularly attended 
to. She was mistress of several languages ; wrote both prose 
and verse with elegance and ease ; excelled in music and all 
the accomplishments of her sex. She was condescending and 
gay in her manners, graceful in all her movements, and was 
reputed to be the most beautiful woman, at that period, in 
Europe. With the deepest regret, she bid adieu to France, 
where she had passed the happy scenes of childhood, and 
after a short passage, landed at Leith in her own dominions, 
where she was received with every demonstration of joy by 
her subjects and nobles, who conducted her to Holyrood, the 
palace of her ancestors. 

5. As she rode through the streets of the capital, the inhab- 
itants were dazzled by her splendor, and struck with admira- 
tion at her beauty. Her warlike nobles, as they crowded 
around her, were softened into the deepest reverence. Happy 
for Mary, if she could have gained equally the affection of all 
her subjects. But there was one class over which all her gen- 
tleness could not exert the slightest influence. She was a 
Catholic. The upstart Reformers, therefore, regarded her as 
an enemy to their belief, although she had early declared her 
determination to molest no one for the free exercise of reli- 
gion. The reformed preachers spoke openly against her 
with the most intemperate violence. The rude John Knox 
even boasted that he had spoken so roughly to her, when 
she condescended to expostulate with him, as to bring tears 
to her eyes. On the Sunday after her arrival, she had Mass 
celebrated in the chapel at Holyrood, but such was the in- 
tolerant spirit of the populace, that the priest narrowly es- 
caped being murdered at the altar. 

6. The most powerful princes of Europe solicited the hand 
of the Scottish queen. But Mary rejected them all, and 
turned her affections towards a young nobleman of high 
birth, connected with the royal family both of England and 
Scotland. This was Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, the eldest 
son of the Earl of Lennox — a man whose only recommen- 
dation seems to have been his personal appearance and ex- 
ternal accomplishments. Queen Mary and Lord Darnley 
were married on the 29th of July, 1565. 

1, Shortly after the Queen's marriage, an insurrection was 

What is said of her education and accomplishments? Where did 
she land? — 5. What is said of her as she rode through the capital? 
What was she ? What happened on the Sunday after her arrival ?— 
6. What is said of the princes of Europe ? On whom did Mary turn 
her affections? — 7. After her marriage, what took place? 



310 SCOTLAND. 

excited against her, at the head of which appeared Mary's 
own brother, the Earl of Murray. The Queen appealed to 
the loyalty of her subjects, and the alacrity with which thev 
responded to the call, proved her popularity. She rode at 
their head to inspire them with courage, and led them 
against the insurgents. The insurrection was soon quelled, 
and order again restored. 

8. Mary soon found that her union with Darnley was 
likely to produce but little comfort or pleasure. He was a 
man of no stability of character ; naturally haughty and 
jealous ; rendered giddy by the height to which he was raised 
by his marriage with the Queen of Scotland, he demanded 
the crown matrimonial, that is, an equal right in the crown 
with his consort. This concession Mary refused, without 
the consent of her parliament. He grew impatient, and set 
no bounds to his resentment. In conjunction with several 
of the nobles of his court, he determined on the death of 
Rizzio, the Queen's Italian secretary. This atrocious deed 
was perpetrated at Holyrood palace, in the very presence of 
the Queen and several ladies of her court. 

9. Darnley, a few months after this event, being seized 
with a violent illness, was advised, as soon as the state of his 
health would permit, to remove to a house near Edinburgh, 
called the Kirk of Field, for the benefit of the air. Mary 
frequently visited him here, with every mark of affection. 
On the 9th of February, 156t, the house in which Darnley 
resided was blown up with gunpowder ; his body, with those of 
several of his attendants, was thrown into an adjacent garden. 

10. The suspicion of the murder fell upon the Earl of 
Bothwell, and the Queen herself was unjustly accused of be- 
ing an accomplice in the death of her husband. In a few 
days, the Earl of Lennox came forward and openly accused 
Bothwell. Bothwell and several others were impeached as 
the murderers, and a day was appointed for their trial. At 
the appointed time, Bothwell appeared in Edinburgh to stand 
his trial, accompanied by a large body of soldiery, and at- 
tended by four thousand gentlemen. A motion made by 
Lennox to suspend the trial for forty days, was rejected ; 
and no prosecutor appearing, the jury, with the consent of 
the nobles and gentlemen, returned a verdict in favor of the 

What is said of the queen ? — 8. What did she soon find ? What did 
he demand ? What did he do ? — 9. A few months after this event, 
what is said of Darnley ? On the 9th of February, 1567, what took 
place? — 10. On whom did the suspicion fall? AVhat is said of Both- 
well and several others? W^hat did the jury do? 



SCOTLAND. 311 

accused. Bothwell, disregarding the murmurs of the people 
against this mockery of justice, invited the nobles to a splen- 
did entertainment, and prevailed on them to sign a bond, 
in which they not only declared him innocent of the King's 
death, but recommended him to Mary as the most suitable 
person for her future husband. 

11. Shortly after this, as Mary was returning from Ster- 
ling, where she had been on a visit to her son, she was met 
by Bothwell, at the head of a thousand horse, and led cap- 
tive to the castle of Dunbar, from which she was only re- 
leased after she consented to become his wife. Mary requested 
time, that she might consult the King of France and her rela- 
tions of the house of Guise. But the ambition of Bothwell 
was too impatient to run the hazard of delay. The only remain- 
ing obstacle, his marriage with Janet Gordon, the sister to the 
Earl of Huntly, was in a few days removed by a divorce, 
which he obtained on the grounds of consanguinity. In the 
short space of one month after his trial, Bothwell led the 
now unhappy Queen to the court sessions, where she forgave 
him the outrages committed against her person, and created 
him Duke of Orkney. On the following day, they were 
married in the hall of Holyrood House. 

12. To explain this extraordinary transaction would too 
far exceed the limits of these short outlines ; suffice it to say, 
that many of the ablest historians have deduced the clearest 
evidence to prove that Mary was innocent of all participa- 
tion in the death of her husband, and that her marriage with 
Bothwell was eff'ected by force.* 

13. The nobles, roused by the insult cast upon themselves 
and their sovereign, flew to arms. A battle was fought at 
Carherry Hill, in which the forces of the Queen were routed. 
Bothwell fled from the field, and Mary surrendered herself 
into the hands of the lords, and was conducted by them to 
Edinburgh. As the Queen rode through the streets of the 
capital, she was accosted in the most insulting language by 
the populace, and upbraided as the murderess of her husband. 
On the following morning, she was escorted by a strong 

* See Meline's Mary, Queen of Scots, and Lingard's History of England. 



What did Bothwell now do? — 11. After this, what is related of 
Mary? What did she request? What obstacle was in the way? 
Where did Bothwell lead the queen?— 12. What have many of the 
ablest historians deduced?— 13. What is said of the nobles? What 
battle followed ? What is said of Mary ? On the following morning, 
where was she conveyed ? 



812 SCOTLAND. 

force, and conveyed to the castle Lochleven, situated en a 
small island in the middle of a lake. 

14. Here she was compelled to resign her crown in favor 
of her infant son, and the Earl of Murray was immediately 
appointed Regent. Mary, after languishing in captivity for 
some months, effected her escape, and, assembling her faith- 
ful adherents around her, made an unsuccessful effort to re- 
gain her crown. She was met by the Regent at Langside, 
and after an obstinate engagement, the Queen's forces were 
completely routed. Mary having witnessed the defeat of 
her arms, contrary to all the entreaties of her friends, took 
the fatal resolution of throwing herself upon the mercy of 
Elizabeth, the English Queen, from whom she received the 
warmest expressions of friendship and ofifers of protection. 
Accordingly, on the 16th of May, she crossed the Solway in 
an open fishing-boat, with a few attendants, and landed on 
the shores of England. 

15. But Elizabeth, instead of affording the promised pro- 
tection, basely sent the unhappy Queen to Tutbury castle, 
where she was placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrews- 
bury. Yarious circumstances contributed to render Eliza- 
beth jealous of her rival, the chief of which was her preten- 
sion to the English crown. For eighteen years the Queen 
of Scots languished in captivity in the dominions of her 
hard-hearted cousin. At length the English government 
resolved to crown the measure of her sorrows by an igno- 
minious death. After much affected delay and regret, Eliza- 
beth signed the warrant for Mary's execution. 

16.. When the messengers sent to inform her of her fate 
arrived at Fotheringay castle, they found Mary, with her 
female attendants, engaged in evening prayer. She received 
them with her usual serenity, and heard her sentence read 
with the greatest composure. After which, placing her hand 
upon her Bible, she solemnly protested her innocence of the 
crimes laid to her charge, particularly that of conspiring 
against the Queen of England. The fanatical Earl of Kent 
observed, that as the book was a "Popish "* Bible, her oath 
was of no avail. Mary replied with dignity, that her oath 

* See note, p. 336. 

14. What was she compelled to do here? What did Mary do after 
some months ? Where was she met ? What resolution did she take ? — 
15. What is said of Elizabeth ? How many years did the queen lan- 
guish in captivity? At length, what was resolved? — 16. How did the 
messengers find Marv ? How did she receive them ? What did she 
protest? What did the Earl of Kent observe ? What did Mary reply? 



SCOTLAND. 313 

on that account was the more solemn, as she herself was a 
Catholic. Being informed that her execution would take 
place on the following morning, she began immediately to 
prepare for that trying scene, and asked that she might be 
allowed to see her confessor, who had not been permitted to 
visit her for some time previous ; but she was barbarously 
denied this simple and only request. The unhappy Queen 
was thus refused the consolation of the last rites of her 
religion. 

17. On the evening previous to her execution, she wrote 
several letters — one to the King of France, and another to 
Elizabeth — in a mild and dignified style, in which she ex- 
pressed her gratitude that the period of her sorrowful pilgrim- 
age was drawing to a close, and requested that her remains 
might be conveyed to France, and placed beside those of her 
mother. Before retiring, she called together her servants, 
and taking a glass of wine, she drank to them all. They 
pledged her in turn upon their knees, and asked her pardon 
for any neglect in their duty. On her part, she humbly 
asked their forgiveness for any offence towards them, and 
after distributing among them what remained of her money 
and jewels, she took her leave of them in the most aifec- 
tionate manner. 

18. She retired to rest at her usual hour, although she 
slept but little, being engaged the greater part of the night 
in prayer. As it grew towards morning, she arose and 
dressed herself in a rich robe of silk and velvet. When the 
sheriff entered her room and informed her that the fatal 
hour had arrived, she replied that she was ready, and 
followed him with a cheerful countenance. On passing 
through the hall she met Sir Andrew Melville, the master 
of her household, who, in tears, lamented the ill-merited fate 
of his mistress. She told him not to weep, but rather to re- 
joice, that she was so soon to be released from all her afflic- 
tions. She then delivered to him her last farewell to all her 
friends, and to her son in particular. Up to this moment 
Mary seemed to bear all the circumstances of the trying 
scene with a fortitude that elicited the admiration even of her 
enemies. At the mention of her son, however, she was no 

What did she ask ? — 17. On the evening previous to the execution, 
what did she do ? Before retiring, what did she do ? What did she 
ask? — 18. What did she do as it inclined towards morning? When 
the sheriff entered, what did she reply ? Whom did she meet ? What 
did she tell and deliver to him ? At the mention of her son, what is 
said of Mary? 
27 



314 SCOTLAND. 

longer able to restrain the emotion of her heart ; all the love, 
the affection, and the tenderness of a mother was recalled : 
she burst into tears. 

19. She bore without shrinking the gaze of the spectators 
and the sight of the scaffold, the block, and the executioner ; 
and advanced into the hall with that grace and majesty 
which she had so often displayed in her happier days and in 
the palace of her fathers. With an ivory crucifix in her hand, 
she seated herself on a stool, while the Dean of Peter- 
borough, in a discourse, exhorted her to renounce the reli- 
gion of her ancestors, and di^ in the Protestant faith. Mary 
replied that she had been boTn in the Catholic religion, in 
that she had lived, and in that she had resolved to die. She 
then offered up her prayers aloud for the Catholic Church, 
for her son, and for her cousin. Queen Elizabeth. Having 
taken her last farewell of her faithful attendants, without the 
least emotions of fear, she calmly resigned her head to the 
block, which was severed from her body by the second stroke 
of the axe.* Thus ended the eventful life of the illustrious 
Queen of Scots, an event which has stamped an indelible 
stain upon the memory of Elizabeth. 

20. James YI., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, who was 
only an infant when placed upon the throne, assumed the 
reigns of government at the age of fourteen. His partiality 
to unworthy favorites excited against him the indignation 
and jealousy of his nobles. The consequence was that a 
number of conspiracies were formed against him, and on 
several occasions the King narrowly escaped with his life. 
No event of importance occurred during his reign in Scotland, 
In 1603, Elizabeth of England died, having previously ap- 
pointed James her successor to the English throne. On the 

* The reader may ask, " What did her son, King James of Scotland, 
do ? " " It may appear surprising," says Lingard, " but a full month 
elapsed before the King of Scotland received any certain intelligence 
of the execution of his mother. At the news he burst into tears, and 
talked of nothing but vengeance; but Elizabeth's partisans at the 
Scottish court supported the cause. They admonished James to re- 
collect that he was now the next heir to the English crown, and advised 
him not to forfeit that splendid inheritance by offending a princess who 
alone could remove him from it. His indignation gradually evapo- 
rated ; and his mouth was sealed with a present of £4,000."— History 
of England. 

19. How did she advance to the hall of execution? What did Mary 
reply ? For what did she offer her prayers ? Having taken leave of 
her attendants, what did she do ? — 20. What is said of James VI. ? In 
}603, what took place? 



SCOTLAND. 315 

Sunday before his departure for England, he repaired to the 
church of St. Giles, and took a solemn farewell of his Scottish 
subjects. On the 7th of May he entered London, and was 
received with shouts of approbation by the people. From 
this period the history of Scotland becomes united with that 
of England. During the reign of Queen Anne, the legis- 
lative union between England and Scotland was effected, by 
which the latter was deprived of her national Parliament, 
and both included under the common title Great Britain, 
A. D. 1101, 

On the Sunday before his departure, what did he do ? During the 
reign of Queen Anne, what was effected ? 



BOOK IX, 
IRELAND. 



CHAPTER I. 

ANCIENT PAGAN IRELAND. 

THE early history of Ireland carries us back to a period 
more remote than does the story of ancient Greece or 
Kome. The first inhabitants of this beautiful island, accord- 
ing- to the best authorities, were descended from the Celts, 
who first peopled the western part of Europe. This is 
evident from the striking similarity between their modes of 
worship, their objects of adoration, and the language of that 
ancient people, the purest dialect of which still exists in 
Ireland. 

2. That Ireland was inhabited at a very remote period of 
antiquity is admitted by all impartial historians ; but to 
pursue its early history to that extent necessary to g-ivc a 
clear view of this early period, would too far exceed the 
limits of these outlines.* A few particulars must suffice. 

3. Five distinct bands of adventurers had possession of 
Ireland at various periods before the age of Christ. We 
learn that it was first colonized, about 2000 years b. c, by a 
chief named Partlio'lan, and a thousand followers. After 
settling the country for about three hundred years, they 
were swept away by a terrible plague. Then followed the 
Neme'dians, For'mo'rians, Fir'holgs, and, last of all, the 
Mile'sians. 

* "There can be no doubt that this nation (Ireland) has preceded in 
time all those which have flourished on the earth, with the exception, 
perhaps, of the Chinese, and that it remains the same to-day." — Th6- 
baud. The Irish Race. 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the early history of Ireland ? The 
first inhabitants? How does this appear evident? — 2. What is admitted 
by all impartial historians ? — 8. AVhat chief first colonized Ireland, and 
when? What other colonists followed at various periods? 

316 



IRELAND. 817 

4. The Milesians came from the north-west of Spain ; 
and took their name from a famous chief called Mile'sius. 
He died in Spain, but his wife Sco'ta,^ and her two sons, 
Heher and Heremon, led the colony into Ireland, and sub- 
dued the country, b. c. 1234. The Milesians thus became 
the ruling race, and furnished the kings of Ireland for over 
two thousand years. 

5. The religion of the ancient Irish was similar to that of 
nearly all the Eastern nations. The chief object of adora- 
tion was the sun, under the name of Baal or Beat. They 
also adored the moon, under the title of Be. The adoration 
of fire, once common to all pagan nations, constituted also a 
part of the worship. Annually, at the time of the vernal 
equinox, the great festival of La Baal-tinne, or the day of 
Baal fire, w^as celebrated, and in every district of Ireland it 
w^as strictly ordered that all the fires should be extinguished, 
and no one was permitted to light them, under pain of death, 
until after the pile of the sacrifice in the palace of Tara was 
kindled. With the w^orship of fire that of water was usually 
associated ; hence we find that certain fountains and w^ells 
were held sacred among the Irish. The pagan priests, who 
Vv^ere held in the highest veneration on account of their learn- 
ing, were called Druids. 

6. Ireland, at an early period, was divided into five king- 
doms, each governed by its own king, and the whole subordi- 
nate to a supreme monarch, who had, rather nominally, the 
control over their proceedings.f In addition to the chief 
king of each province, every subordinate prince, or head of 
a large district, also assumed the title of king, and exercised 
within his own dominions all the powers of sovereignty. To 
the right of primogeniture, so generally acknowledged in 

* Scota's grave is still pointed out in a valley named after her, in the 
County of Kerry. It was from this lady that Ireland received the name of 
ScoHla. Ireland has been known at various periods of history as Erin, 
Hibernid, and Scotia. It Avas called Hibernia by Caesar, Pliny, Tacitus, 
and other Roman writers. The name of Scotia was exclusively applied 
to Ireland until the eleventh century, M'hen it was transferred to Scot- 
land, called Alba and Scotia Minor before that period. Ireland has been 
60 named by the English during the last seven or eight centuries. See 
note, page 298. 

t Ireland was divided into five kingdoms by the Firbolgs. 

4. What is said of the Milesians ? When did they arrive in Ireland ? 
— 5. What was the religion and chief object of adoration ? What else ? 
What was annually celebrated ? With the worship of fire, what was as- 
sociated ? What is said of the priests ? — 6. How was Ireland divided ? 
What is said of every subordinate prince ? Of the right of primogeniture ? 
27* 



818 IRELAND. 

those ages, no regard was paid by the Irish. Within the 
circle of the relations of reigning princes, all alike were 
eligible to succeed him. The monarch himself was not only- 
created by election, but even previous to his death a suc- 
cessor was chosen by the same process. From this state of 
things, so badly designed for the preservation of order, we 
may easily infer that discord frequently prevailed. The 
crown itself was often regarded as a prize to the strongest ; 
hence faction pervaded all ranks of the people, from the 
cottage of the peasant to the palace of the supreme monarch. 

7. In the long list of kings who have passed like a shadow 
through that dim and distant period of Irish history, ex- 
tending from the Milesian invasion to the birth of Christ, 
the name of Ollave Fola is pre-eminently distinguished as a 
great legislator. He began his reign 918 b. c. Many of his 
most useful institutions are said to have enjoyed but a short 
existence ; but the act which renders his reign an important 
era in legislation was the establishment of the Triennial 
Convention at Tar a, the ancient residence of the monarchs 
of Ireland. 

In these periodical assemblies we observe a near approach 
to a representative form of government. The leading per- 
sons of the three orders, of which the political community 
consisted, namely, the king, the druids, and the chiefs, were 
convened for the purpose of passing such laws and regula- 
tions as the public good of the nation seemed to require. 

8. Among the important offices transmitted hereditary in 
Ireland, were those of heralds, bards, and musicians. To 
the profession of these arts, Ollave Fola assigned lands for 
their use. He also instituted at Tara a school of general in- 
struction, which afterwards became celebrated under the 
name of the College of the Learned. He reigned thirty 
years. At the commencement of the Christian era, the Irish 
throne was occupied by Conary the Great, of whose reign 
we have but few particulars. 

9 One of the most illustrious of the pagan Irish mon- 
archs was Gormac Ulfada, who flourished about the middle 
of the third century.* To his munificence and love of 

* A. D. 244 to 267. 

Of the monarch himself? From this state of things what may we 
infer? — 7. In the long list of kings, what name is distinguished? 
What renders his reign an important era ? In these assemblies, what 
do we observe? Who were the leading persons?— 8. Wliat offices were 
transmitted hereditary? At the Christian era, who occupied the throne? 
— 9. Who was one of the most illustrious monarchs? 



IRELAND. 819 

learning the country was indebted, it is said, for the founda- 
tion of three academies at Tara, in the "first of which the 
science of war was taught ; in the second, historical litera- 
ture ; while the third was devoted to the cultivation of juris- 
prudence. Under his auspices a general revision of the 
annals of the kingdom took place ; the national records, 
preserved in the Psalter of Tara since the days of the illus- 
trious Ollave, were corrected and improved. According to 
an ancient custom of the country, no one could retain pos- 
session of the throne who was affected with any personal 
blemish ; and as Cormac, in defending his palace against a 
rebellious attack, had incurred the loss of an eye, he was 
thereby disqualified for retaining the sovereignty. After 
his abdication of the regal power, Cormac retired to an 
humble cottage, where he devoted the remainder of his days 
to literary pursuits, while he was succeeded in the throne by 
his son. 



CHAPTER IT. 



SKETCH OF EARLY CHRTSTIAN IRELAND.— FROM 432 TO 
1014 A. D. 

1^0 event of importance occurs in the history of Ire- 
xM land from this period until Christianity was introduced 
into the island by the illustrious apostle, St. Patrick.'^ This 
holy missionary, according to the most authentic accounts, 
was born in France, of respectable parentage, about the 
year 38*7. In his youth he was taken captive to Ireland, 
and sold to a man named Milcho, by whom he was em- 
ployed in attending flocks. After six years of servitude he 
escaped to his native country ; and having spent some time 
with his parents, he repaired to the celebrated monastery or 
college of St. Martin, near Tours, where he remained for 
several years, and is believed to have been initiated into the 
ecclesiastical state previous to his leaving that institution. 
2. The attention of the Roman Pontiff had been for some 

* Patrick is from the Latin, and signifies noble. 

To him for what is the country indebted ? What ancient custom of 
the country is mentioned ? What happened to Cormac ? 

Chapter II. — 1. By whom was Christianity introduced ? In his 
youth, what is said of him ? Having escaped, where did he repair ? — 
2. What is said of the attention of the Roman Pontiif ? 



820 IRELAND. 

time directed towards establishing the Christian faith in Ire- 
land ; at length Pope Celestine resolved to send a Bishop to 
that country, and Palladius was the person appointed for 
that mission. But on the death of Palladius, which hap- 
pened shortly after his appointment, St. Patrick was selected 
to succeed him in the mission. Having been consecrated 
Bishop at Ebona, a town in the north of France, the saint 
proceeded on his passage to the scene of his labors, and after 
some short delay in Britain he arrived in Ireland, as the 
Irish annals inform us, in the first year of the pontificate of 
Sextus III., A. D. 432. 

3. The most abundant fruit followed his labors ; proceed- 
ing from province to province, he preached the truths of the 
gospel, and by his eloquence converted to Christianity all 
who heard him. He was permitted to explain the object of 
his mission before Laegrius, the supreme monarch of the 
country, at a meeting of the great council of the nation then 
assembled at Tara, and numbered among his converts the 
chief bard and several members of the royal family. It does 
not appear that the monarch himself embraced Christianity, 
although he allowed the holy man to pursue his mission un- 
molested. In a few years, St. Patrick built a great number 
of churches and founded monasteries designed for the educa- 
tion of persons for the priesthood. He is said to have ban- 
ished all the vipers and noxious animals from the island ; 
but whether this be the fact or not, it is certain that they 
will not live in that country at the present time. The saint 
died at Saul on the 17th of March, a. d. 465, in the seven- 
ty-eighth year of his age. The day of his death is still held 
in grateful remembrance by the Irish people, no matter in 
what part of the earth fortune may have cast them. 

4. During the sixth, seventh, and the greater part of the 
eighth century, literature flourished in Ireland. The fame 
of her institutions spread to other climes, and numbers from 
all parts of Europe flocked to her shores to study in her 
schools, while at the same time Irish scholars were invited 
to impart instruction in foreign countries. Hence we find that 
Charlemagne patronized several distinguished Irish scholars ; 
and during the reign of Charles the Bald, the learned. 

On the death of Palladius, who was selected ? When did he arrive 
in Ireland? — 3. What is said of the fruit of his labors? What was he 
permitted ? In a few years, w^hat did St. Patrick do ? What is he said 
to have done? Where and when did he die? — 4. During this period, 
what is said of literature ? Of the fame of other institutions ? Hence 
what do we find ? 



IKELAND. 321 

thoug'h subtle, John Scotus Erigena received not only the 
ro3^al patronage, but was made the intimate companion of 
that monarch. 

5. The monastic schools of ancient Ireland were open to 
all. The poor and the wealthy had free access, and paid 
nothing. In these noble institutions were trained an entire 
population of philosophers, writers, architects, painters, mu- 
sicians, poets, and historians ; but, above all, they turned out 
countless preachers and missionaries, destined to spread the 
light of the Gospel and of Christian education throughout 
Europe. Among the most celebrated of the Irish schools 
were Armagh, Clonard, Lismore, Bangor, Clovfert, Cashel, 
and Clonmacnois. The College of Bangor at one time was 
attended by over three thousand students, and Armagh fur- 
nished education to seven thousand. 

6. Towards the close of the eighth century, Ireland was 
invaded by the Danes, who continued to hold possession of 
the chief maritime towns of the country for more than two 
hundred years. During this period an almost uninterrupted 
series of warfare was carried on between the natives and 
the invaders ; but to follow the history of the country 
through that period would too far exceed our present limits. 
It will be sufficient to notice the great victory gained by the 
Irish heroes on the plains of Clontarf, where the death-blow 
was given to the Danish power. As this is one of the most 
memorable battles recorded in the Irish annals, it deserves a 
particular notice. 

7. About the year 1014, the Danes, whose chief power 
was concentrated at Dublin, began to make preparations for 
reducing the entire country. For this purpose they not only 
collected all their forces from ihe different parts of Ireland, 
Scotland, Hebrides, and Orkneys, but, moreover, brought 
fresh reinforcements from Denmark. It happened at this 
time that the chief throne of Ireland was occupied by the 
famous Brian Boru. This aged and illustrious monarch, 
aware of the intention of the Danes, lost no time in oppos- 
ing their designs ; and, placing himself at the head of his 
own forces of Munster, and joined by those of Meath, under 
Malachy, and by the troops of Connaught, commanded by 
O'Kelly, the king of that province, he marched directly to 

5. What is said of the monastic schools of Ireland? Mention some 
of the most famous of the Irish schools. — 6. What took place towards the 
close of the eighth century ? What will it be sufficient to notice ?— 
7. In 1014, what did the Danes do? Who at this time was the chief 
king ? What did he do ? 

V 



822 IREI.AND, 

the vicinity of Dublin, and took up his position on the plain 
of Clontarf. The Danes, confiding in the superiority of 
their numbers, were anxious for the engagement. At the 
dawn of day, on Good Friday, the 23d of April, the battle 
began, and raged with unceasing fury until the close of the 
evening, when victory declared in favor of the Irish, and 
the Danes were routed with immense slaughter. 

8. Brian, who is said to have triumphed in fifty battles 
over the enemies of his country, was now destined to fall in 
the moment of another victory by the hand of an assassin. 
In the midst of the confusion and carnage that followed the 
retreat, Bruadair, one of the Danish chiefs, took refuge in a 
small wood in the vicinity of Brian's tent, and perceiving 
that the monarch was almost entirely unattended, and at 
that moment engaged in prayer with his hands upraised to 
heaven, rushed into the tent and plunged a dagger into the 
royal veteran's heart. The heroic King had reached the age 
of leighty-eight. Never did the power of the Danes recover 
from the overthrow it received on the plains of Clontarf. 
The blow struck on that memorable occasion by Brian was 
followed up by his able successor, Malachy ; hence we find 
that these enemies of Ireland gradually diminished in 
numbers, until at length their feeble remains are mingled 
with the general mass of the population, and disappear as a 
distinct people. 

9. Irish literature, which had been so renowned through- 
out the west, naturally decreased from its former state of 
advancement during the Danish invasion. The schools and 
monasteries, though frequently ravaged and burnt by the 
Danes, again arose from their ashes, and once more re- 
sounded with the voice of instruction and prayer as the in- 
vaders retired. Hence during the eleventh century her 
literary institutions became famous abroad, and her shores 
were visited by foreign students. 

When was the battle fought, and what was the issue ? — 8. What is 
said of Brian ? Kelate the circumstances of his death. What is said 
of the power of the Danes ? Of the blow struck on this occasion ?— 9. 
What is said of Irish literature ? Of the schools ? Of her literary in- 
stitutions ? 



IRELAND. 323 



CHAPTER III. 

FROM THE INVASION OF IRELAND BY HENRY II. OF ENG- 
LAND, A. D. 1171, TO THE REIGN OF JAMES IL, 1685. 

FROM the overthrow of the Danes in the great battle 
of Glontarf, there is nothing to recount in the history 
of Ireland until we come to the memorable struggle which 
terminated in the utter extinction of her national indepen- 
dence, and the subjection of the country to the dominion of 
England. As early as the year 1155, the English King, 
Henry II., had conceived the design of invading Ireland ; 
but having neither a legal right to the possession of the 
country, nor any ground of a quarrel to justify an invasion 
of it, he saw that by no other means could he plausibly attain 
his object than by concealing the real motive of his enterprise 
under a pretended zeal for the interest of religion and mo- 
rality. 

2. With this view he applied to Pope Adrian, an English- 
man by birth, who had been lately raised to the pontifical 
throne, for permission to invade and subdue the Irish for the 
purpose of effecting a reformation among them. A bull, 
giving the requisite authority, is indeed attributed to Adrian, 
but the best historians are about equally divided as to its 
authenticity. If the Pope did issue the document, he had no 
right whatever to do so, as Ireland never belonged to Rome, 
and such an action on his part would be wholly unjust. 
Adrian lY., however, was a man of piety, and so long as we 
are without positive proof of his guilt, it is wrong to blacken 
his character by attributing to him the lies and base motives 
contained in the bull in question. After stating falsely, "that 
the kingdom of Ireland and every island upon which Christ, 
the sun of justice, shone, belong of right to St. Peter and the 
Holy Roman Church," the pretended bull adds, that in con- 
sideration of "an annual tribute to St. Peter of one penny 
from each house in Ireland," Henry might enter that country 
and, for his own glory and the honor of God, eradicate vice, 
implant virtue, promote religion, and extend the church.* 

* Brennan, Catechism of Irish History. — Henry II. was about the last 

Chapter HI.— 1. As early as 1155, what had Henry II. conceived? 
What did he see ? — 2. With this view, to whom did he apply ? What 
is said of Pope Adrian's bull ? 



324 IRELAND. 

But either from the internal commotion of his kingdom, or 
from some other cause, Henry was restrained from carrying 
into effect his projected invasion of Ireland for many years 
after he obtained the pretended grant of the country from 
the Pope. 

3. An opportunity at length presented itself favorable to 
his ambitious views. Dermot, King of Leinster, having 
been expelled from his country on account of his crimes and 
cruelty, fled to England for aid. On his arrival, however, find- 
ing that the English King was absent in Normandy, he imme- 
diately sailed for that country, and threw himself at the feet 
of Henry, offering, if restored to his kingdom, to hold it as 
a vassal of the English crown. The English monarch re- 
ceived, without hesitation, the proffered fealty of his new 
liegeman, and as the only way in which he could at present 
forward his objects, he gave him letters-patent for the pur- 
pose of raising forces in his dominions. 

4. Having been thus successful in the object of his mission, 
Dermot hastened back to England and succeeded in inter- 
esting in his cause several persons of distinguished rank, 
among whom Richard de Clare, Earl of Pembroke, sur- 
named Strongbow, was the most prominent; also two 
brothers of high rank, Maurice Fitz-Gerald and Robert 
Fitz-Stephen, who, like the Earl of Pembroke himself, were 
persons of broken fortunes and ready to embark in any 
enterprise, however desperate, which held out the prospect 
of a speedy relief. To the Earl of Pembroke, Dermot 
promised his daughter Eva in marriage, and to secure to 
him the succession to the throne of Leinster, on condition 
that he would raise an efficient body of men, and transport 

man in the world to select for such a lofty mission. He was a descendant 
of Duke Robert '* the Devil." His manners, morals, and temper were 
those of a wild man, or a demon. It is said he violated oaths the most 
solemn. He was an audacious liar. Lingard tells us that while in a 
passion Henry's eyes were spotted with blood, and his talk was the 
ravings of a madman, and the fury of a savage beast. While in such a 
degraded condition, he would sometimes tear off his clothes, roll on the 
floor, and gnaw anything that came within his reach. And his sons were 
worthy of such a father. " The custom in our family," wrote his eldest 
son, Richard, " is that the son shall hate the father. To detest each 
other is our destiny. From the Devil we came, and to the Devil we 
shall go."— M. 

3. What is said of Dermot? AVhat did he offer to Henry? How 
was he received by the English monarch ? What did he give him ? — 
4. What did Dermot now do ? What did he promise to the Earl of 
Pembroke? 



IRELAND. 325 

them into Ireland during the following spring. To the two 
brothers, Maurice and Robert, he engaged to grant the town 
of Wexford and the adjoining land ; while they, on their 
part, engaged to transport into Leinster a body of English 
and Welsh forces, to aid him in recovering the throne of his 
kingdom. 

5. Being thus assured of foreign assistance, Dermot re- 
turned, probably to Leinster, where, after some short time, 
we find him making the most unqualified submission to 
Roderick 0^ Connor, then the chief, and the last of the Irish 
monarchs, renouncing the claim to the government of 
Leinster, requesting to be allowed only ten cantreds of that 
province. This specious submission was only intended to 
disguise his treacherous designs, as his subsequent conduct 
proved, until the arrival of his expected succors. In the 
mean time, the English adventurers hastened to fulfil their 
engagements, and in the month of May, during the spring 
of 11G9, the first landing of the Anglo-Normans on the 
coasts of Ireland, under the command of Robert Fitz- 
Stephen, took place. 

6. The traitor, Dermot, full of joy at the welcome intelli- 
gence, instantly collected all the forces in his power and 
hastened to join the invaders. The first attack was made on 
the city of Waterford which finally yielded to their arms. 
An instance of cruelty committed by the invaders about this 
time deserves particular notice. Seventy of the principal 
inhabitants of Waterford were made prisoners during their 
attack upon the city. Every offer was made by their fellow 
citizens for their ransom, even the surrender of the city 
Itself was proft'ered as the purchase of their liberty. It was 
determined, however, by the English chieftains, to decide 
the fate of the prisoners in a council of 'war, in which the 
cruel advice of Henry of Mount Maurice, who thus early 
urged a policy which has been only too faithfully pursued by 
the English government to the present time, *' of striking- 
terror into the Irish," unfortunately prevailed. The un- 
happy prisoners were borne away to the adjacent rocks, 
where they were brutally put to death, by first breaking their 
limbs and then casting them into the sea. 

Y. Subsequent to this event, the Earl of Pembroke arrived 

What to the two brothers ? — 5. After some short time, what do we 
find him doing? What was this submission intended for? In 1169, 
what took place ? — 6. When was the first attack made ? What is said 
of seventy of the inhabitants of Waterford ? What was determined ? 
What was their fate ? — 7. What took place subsequent to this event ? 
28 



326 IRELAND. 

in Ireland with reinforcements, and in a short time Dublin, 
Waterfoi^d, and other important places fell into the hands 
of the English. In the mean time, the English monarch 
having made all the necessary preparations, embarked for 
Ireland, and, after a short voyage, landed at Crook near 
Waterford, on the eighteenth of October, a. d. 1171. 

The design of the King, if we may judge from some of 
his acts immediately after his arrival, was clearly to impress 
upon the minds of the people that he came rather to protect 
them from the oppression of others, than to acquire any ad- 
vantage or possession for himself. This refined policy, com- 
bined with a total want of a united or national spirit among 
the people, will account in some measure for the little resist- 
ance the royal invader met during the progress which he 
made through the country. 

8. MacCarthy, of Desmond, was the first Irish prince who 
paid homage to the English King. Henry advanced at the 
head of his army to Lismore, and from thence to Cashel, 
where he received the submission of Donald O^Brien, King 
Thomond. The example of these faithless princes was 
followed by many of the inferior chiefs, who, after meeting 
with a courteous reception, were dismissed to their terri- 
tories, laden with presents from the English monarch. From 
Cashel, Henry returned through Tipperary to Waterford, 
and after making but a short stay, he marched to Dublin, a 
city which, from the extent of its commerce, had risen at 
that time to such importance as to become the rival of 
London. 

9. Here, we are told, he was joyfully received by the in- 
habitants ; while all the neighboring chieftains hastened to 
profifer their allegiance ; and among the rest who now joined 
in the train of the English sovereign was 0''Rourke, of 
Brefny, and finally Roderick 0^ Connor, who was the last 
chief monarch of Ireland.* In 1175, a treaty was concluded 
between Henry and Roderick, in which it was solemnly 
agreed that the Kings of England should be, in all future 
time, the lords paramount of Ireland ; that the fee of the soil 

* Roderick O'Connor was afterwards dethroned by his own sons, and 
ended his days in the monastery of Cong. 

When and where did the English monarch land? What was the 
first design of the king?— 8. Who was the first Irish prince that paid 
homage to Henry? Where did the English king now go? What is 
said of the example of these princes? How did Henry return? — 9. 
Here, what are we told? Who was among the rest? In 1175, what 
took place? 



IRELAND. 827 

should be invested in them, and that all succeeding monarchs 
of Ireland should hold their dominions but as tenants or 
vassals of the English crown. 

10. In 1185, Henry transferred the government of Ireland 
to his son John, then a youth twelve years of age. The 
foolish, insolent, profligate behavior of the young prince 
and his courtiers roused the indignation of the Irish chief- 
tains, who now began to perceive, when too late, that they 
had intrusted their liberties to treacherous keepers, whose 
object was to render them not only tributaries, but slaves. 
Forgetting all local and personal differences, they agreed to 
unite against the enemies of their country ; and so success- 
ful were they in their efforts, that, according to the English 
chronicles themselves, John lost, in his different contests 
with the Irish, almost the whole of his army. Henry, being 
informed of the danger that threatened the very existence of 
his power in Ireland, instantly dispatched orders recalling 
the prince, and placed the whole power of the government, 
civil and military, in the hands of John DeCourcy, a man 
of great energy and ability. 

Such is the brief outline of the establishment of the Eng- 
lish power over the Irish nation ; a power that has placed 
the two nations in the attitude in which we see them at 
present, the one subjected without being conquered; the 
other a ruler without being a master. 

11. In 1315, Ireland was invaded by Edward Bruce, 
brother of the King of Scotland. He landed on the island 
with three thousand adventurers, and was joined by seve- 
ral of the Irish lords of Ulster. These chiefs convened an 
assembly at Dundalk. The Scottish Prince was elected King 
of Ireland, and crowned amid great pomp and rejoicing. 
After committing various devastations, a decisive battle was 
fought, in which Bruce was killed, and the Scots compelled 
to retire. Bruce's impatience was his ruin. Instead of 
waiting for the arrival of help from Scotland, he led his 
shattered regiments against the vastly superior forces of Sir 
Richard Bermingham. 

12. In 136*7, Lionel, a son of King Edward III., and gov- 
ernor of Ireland, held the memorable Parliament at Kil- 
kenny, wherein the infamous Statute of Kilkenny was en- 

10. In 1185, what did Henry do? What is said of the behavior of 
the young prince ? What did they agree ? What did Henry do when 
informed of this danger?— 11. What took place in 1315? Where was 
Bruce crowned King of Ireland? What was the cause of his ruin? — 
12. In what year was the infamous statute of Kilkenny enacted? 



828 IRELAND. 

acted. From its commencement, each year of English rule 
weighed heavier and more unjustly on Ireland.,- But now 
the natives of the country were to be trampled down, if they 
could not be trampled out of existence. Among the enact- 
ments of the *' Statute of Kilkenny," were : (1.) Any alli- 
ance with the Irish by marriage was punishable as an act of 
high treason. (2.) Any Englishman taking an Irish name, 
or using the Irish dress or language, should forfeit all his 
land. (3.) The English were forbidden to admit any Irish 
into convents or monasteries. (4.) They were also forbid- 
den to allow an Irish horse to graze upon their lands. The 
result of such a sickening and insane code was to fill un- 
happy Ireland with hatred, riots, and civil war. The ''mere 
Irishman" was to be dealt with as one who had no rights in 
his own country. 

13. In the reign of Henry YII., of England, the power 
of the Governor of Ireland was much diminished by decree- 
ing that no act passed, or Parliament held, without the con- 
sent of the King of England, would be deemed valid. Thus, 
by this measure, the Irish legislature first became depen- 
dent on that of England. 

14. The tyrannical efforts of Henry YIII. to introduce his 
new religion into Ireland utterly failed. In 1535, he ap- 
pointed George Brown, an apostate priest, first Protestant 
Archbishop of Dublin. The royal robber also seized many 
abbeys, convents, and monasteries ; but the faithful Irish 
regarded his religious schemes with horror. 

15. The long reign of Elizabeth was one of continual dis- 
turbance in Ireland. The north of Ireland was the last 
stronghold of Irish independence. John O'Neill took the 
title of "King of Ulster." Elizabeth feared the brave old 
Irish Prince, and, in order to obtain peace, offered him the 
title of "Earl of Tyrone." When the English Commis- 
sioners brought him the offer, he said : " If your mistress, 
Elizabeth, be Queen of England, I am O'Neill, King of 
Ulster. I never made peace with her without having been 
previously solicited. I care not for the abject title of Earl. 
My birth and family raise me above it. To no one will I 
yield precedence. My ancestry have been kings of Ulster. 

What were some of the clauses of this statute?— 13. What occurred 
in the reign of Henry VII.?— 14. What is said of Henry VIII.?— 15. 
What is remarked of the reign of Elizabeth and the last stronghold of 
Irish independence? What is said of John O'Neill? How did O'Neill 
answer the English when they came to present him with an English 
title ? 



IRELAND. 829 

I have gained thaj: kingdom by my sword, and by my sword 
I will preserve it." 

Every effort was made to undermine and destroy O'Neill, 
and he finally perished by the treacherous and blood-stained 
hand of an English officer named Piers. For his services, 
this murderer received the sum of one thousand marks from 
the government. 

16. Hugh O'Neill, a cousin of the murdered prince, lifted 
himself into power and prominence during the latter part of 
the reign of Elizabeth. He was a fearless and accomplished 
soldier, and was the first Irish leader who kjiew how to use 
policy in his dealings with the crafty English. Being goaded 
into rebellion, he organized a confederacy, which included 
nearly all the Irish princes. But his chief allies were 
O'Donnell, Maguire, and O'Kane. For years O'Neill baffled 
and defeated the armies of Elizabeth. She ratified terms 
with him on her deathbed. The campaigns against O'Neill 
cost England over fifteen millions of dollars, and the destruc- 
tion of the flower of her army. The Irish also suffered im- 
mensely, as the war was carried on with reckless barbarity. 

lY. When James I. came to the throne, he at first treated 
O'Neill and O'Donnell with considerable respect. He soon, 
however, re-enacted the ferocious penal laws against Catho- 
lics, and turned his mind to the precious project of plunder- 
ing the Irish chiefs of Ulster, in order to supplant them with 
Scottish and English adventurers. And only too w^ell did he 
succeed. O'Neill and O'Donnell were forced to fly to the 
continent ; and James confiscated three hundred and eighty- 
five thousand acres of the best land in Ulster. This is com- 
monly called "the Plantation of Ulster." To this day are 
felt the results of the robbery and spoliation carried out 
under that soulless and grasping monarch. 

18. The loyalty of the Irish to the ungrateful house of 
the Stuarts manifested itself after the execution of the un- 
fortunate Charles I., in declaring in favor of his son, after- 
wards Charles II. To quell the insurrection that followed, 
Cromwell was appointed to the command of the parliament 
forces, and despatched to that country. After some delay 
at Dublin, where he landed, he determined to lay siege to 

What was O'Neill's fate?— 16. Who was Hugh O'Neill, and what 
qualities did he possess ? What did he organize ? Who were his chief 
allies? How did this struggle end? — 17. What is said of James I. and 
his cruel policy? — 18. What is said of the loyalty of the Irish in favor 
of the Stuarts ? Who was sent to the country ? To what place did he 
lay siege ? 
28* 



330 IRELAND. 

Drogheda. The town was garrisoned by Sir A. Aston, with 
two thousand soldiers and a regiment of horse, besides sev- 
eral volunteers. On coming before the town, Cromwell sent 
a formal summons to the governor, which was peremptorily- 
rejected, and a blockade was accordingly commenced. 

19. The besiegers were delayed some time by the want 
of artillery; but when the cannon arrived from Dublin, 
they opened a tremendous fire from their batteries, which 
the walls of Drogheda were unable to resist. A practicable 
breach was soon made, but the attempt at storming was 
twice repulsed with great slaughter. Cromwell rallied his 
men to a third attack, and placed himself at their head. The 
resistance was vigorous ; but the Irish Colonel Wall, being 
killed at the head of his regiment, his soldiers surrendered 
the town under a solemn promise of quarter. This engage- 
ment, made by his officers, Cromwell, on entering the city, 
refused to ratify, and ordered the garrison to be put to the 
sword. The inhuman massacre was continued during the 
two following days. Thirty of the brave defenders of 
Drogheda alone survived, and these were sold as slaves. 

20. Cromwell next took the city of Wexford, where all 
the horrors of Drogheda were renewed. The ferocious con- 
queror strictly forbade his soldiers to give quarter. Starfford, 
the governor, with some few others, escaped by swimming 
their horses across the river. The excuse for these awful 
barbarities, was the necessity, it was said, of striking im- 
mediate terror into the Irish, in order to prevent them from 
future opposition. After these, and similar acts of unex- 
ampled severity, the whole country submitted to the power 
of the Puritan Parliament. 

21. At the conclusion of the war, the greater part of the 
Irish nobility and gentry, with the flower of the army, had 
sought an asylum in foreign lands ; their estates were for- 
feited, and the English Commonwealth prepared to put into 
execution a system of confiscation more cruel, extensive, and 
complete than that which had been attempted by Elizabeth 
or James I. A law was made out for the settling of Ireland, 
which declares, in its first clause, that it was the intention 
of the English parliament " to extirpate the Irish nation.^'' 

22. In the year 1658, preparations were made to put this 

19. On taking the town, what did Cromwell order? How many sur- 
vived ? — 20. What city was next taken, and what was renewed ? What 
was the excuse for these barbarities? — 21. At the conclusion of the war, 
what is said of the nobilitv and gentry ? What ordinance was made 
out ?— 22. In 1653, what was done? 



IRELAND. 331 

act into execution, and another ordinance was passed for the 
satisfaction of the adventurers and soldiers. By this decree 
the forfeited lands in the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, 
and Waterford, in the province of Munster ; the King and 
Queen's counties; east and west Meath, in the province of 
Leinster ; Down, Antrim and Armagh, in the province of 
Ulster, were all to be charged with the money advanced by 
adventurers, and to be divided among them by lot. Thus a 
large portion of Ireland was distributed among the followers 
of Cromwell and the supporters of the parliament. In this 
division, the fanatical Puritans declared that they were di- 
rected by the example set by the Israelites in the division 
of Canaan, and believed that they were justified. Thus were the 
ancient Irish robbed, driven out, and displaced by a crowd 
cf hungry, crime-stained adventurers from Scotland and Eng- 
land; andamidevery succeeding change these new proprietors 
have preserved a firm hold on their ill-gotten possessions. 

23. That the act which gave them the lands of the king- 
dom was an unparalleled public robbery and the most atro- 
cious instance of unprincipled spoliation recorded in history, 
no one can deny. Few, however, felt any scruples at that 
period. The country they deemed theirs by the right of conquest 
— a right which they supposed to give them absolute author- 
ity over the lives and property of the vanquished. The 
sufferers were Catholics, and they had been taught to look 
upon them as idolaters, whose punishment was most ac- 
ceptable service in the sight of Heaven. Many of the native 
inhabitants were kept as bondsmen and slaves to the new 
proprietors ; they were looked upon as an inferior race, a de- 
graded caste, for whom they could feel no sympathy. The 
very name of Irish was with them and their descendants 
an expression of contempt, and associated with ideas of in- 
tellectual and moral degradation. The peasants were for- 
bidden to leave their parishes without permission, and strictly 
prohibited from assembling for religious worship or any 
other purpose. The Catholic clergy were ordered to quit the 
country under penalty of death ; and it was, moreover, de- 
clared a capital offence to celebrate Mass, or to perform any 
ceremony of Catholic worship. 

By this decree what lands were forfeited ? In this division, what did 
the Puritans declare? — 23. What is said of the act? How did they 
deem the country ? Who were the sufferers ? What is said of many 
of the native inhabitants ? Of the very name of Irish ? What were 
the peasants forbidden ? What were the clergy ordered ? 



332 IRELAND. 



CHAPTER IV, 

FROM THE REIGN OF JAMES 11. TO THE REBELLION 
OF 1798. 

"VrOTHING occurred in the history of Ireland of any par- 
XM ticular importance until after the dethronement of James 
II. The Irish still remained firm in their allegiance to the 
unfortunate monarch, and unfurled the royal standard in his 
favor. On the 12th of March, 1688, James landed at Kins- 
dale, in Ireland, with a small body of French forces. Pro- 
ceeding immediately to Dublin, he entered the capital amidst 
the joyous acclamations of all classes of the inhabitants. As 
soon as time would permit, he convoked a parliament to 
meet at Dublin. One of the first acts of this assembly was a 
decree granting full liberty of conscience to the professors of 
every religious creed. 

2. On the part of King William, nothing was more 
anxiously desired than to bring his rival to a decisive en- 
gagement, for every day that protracted the war in Ireland 
added to the dangers of his situation. He therefore resolved 
to conduct the campaign in person, and arrived in Ireland 
on the 14th of June. James, on hearing of William's land- 
ing, hastened to join his army, which had retired from 
Dundalk to Drogheda, and took up his position on the 
southern bank of the river Boyne. The French and Irish 
officers labored to dissuade James from coming to an engage- 
ment on that occasion. They represented to him that his 
numbers were inferior to those of the enemy ; that the 
greater part of his forces were new levies ; that the promised 
succors from France might speedily be expected ; they 
showed how easily he could maintain a defensive warfare 
beyond the Shannon, until France should strengthen his 
force, and delay w^eaken that of his rival. 

3. Courage had never formed any very striking feature in 
the character of James, but on this occasion he insisted, with 
so much animation, on fighting, that his officers and soldiers 

Chapter IV. — 1. What is said of the history of Ireland? On the 
12th of March, 1688, what took place ? What did he convoke ? What 
was one of the first acts ? — 2. On the part of William, what is said ? 
What did he resolve ? Where did James take up his position? What 
did the French officers do? — 3. What were his officers and soldiers 
persuaded ? 



IRELAND. 838 

were persuaded that he intended to take a desperate part in 
the engagement, but at the same time, with ominous pre- 
caution, he despatched Sir Patrick Trant to Waterford, in 
order to secure a vessel for his escape in case of misfortune. 
On the last day of June, 1690, William's army advanced 
towards the river, and the English King proceeded to take a 
survey of the enemy's lines from a hill which commanded an 
extensive prospect. Anxious, however, to gain a nearer view 
of the eneiny, he advanced with some of his officers towards 
the ford opposite the village of Old Bridge, and, having spent 
some time in reconnoitring, sat down to refresh himself on 
some rising ground. While in this position several field- 
pieces were discharged at the spot, and as the King arose to 
mount his horse, a shot from one of the guns killed one of 
his attendants and two horses, and a second ball grazed his 
right shoulder, tearing the coat and inflicting a slight 
wound. 

4. On the memorable morning of the 1st of July, 1690, 
William's army advanced in three columns to the banks of 
the Boyne. After some delay in crossing the river, the en- 
gagement became general. The conflict was sustained for some 
time on both sides with determined bravery. William ani- 
mated his soldiers by his presence, and frequently mingled 
in the thickest of the contest, while James remained a pas- 
sive spectator at a ruined church on the top of the hill of 
Donore ; and he is said to have exclaimed when he witnessed 
the destructive charge of Hamilton's dragoons, " Spare, oh, 
spare my English subjects ! " * 

5. Before the fate of the battle was decided, James, de- 
serting his brave and faithful soldiers, fled with precipitation 
to Dublin, and there falsely ascribed his defeat to the cow- 
ardice of the Irish, who, throughout the whole action, had 
displayed the greatest courage, and only wanted a worthy 
leader to have gained a triumphant victory. On their part, 
they justly ascribed the ill success of the day to the coward- 
ice and incapacity of James. " Change Kings," was their 
common cry, ** and we will fight the battle over again." 

* William's forces numbered forty-five thousand picked men and 
sixty pieces of heavy artillery ; James's army numbered only twenty- 
three thousand raw troops and twelve field-pieces. 

On the last day of June, what did William do ? After this, what is 
related of him ? — 4. On the first day of July what took place ? How 
was the conflict sustained ? What is said of William ? Of James, and 
what did he exclaim? — 5. Before the fate of the battle was decided, 
what did James do ? What was the common cry ? 



834 IRELAND. 

Making but a short stay at Dublin, James continued bis 
flight to Waterford, and embarked for France. In the battle 
of the Boyne, William lost several of his most distinguished 
and able officers. The Irish lost no person of distinction 
except the brave and courageous Hamilton, who was taken 
prisoner. When brought into the presence of William, he 
was asked by the King if he thought the Irish would fight 
again : to which the intrepid General replied : " Upon my 
honor, I believe they will." 

6. After the departure of James, the Irish leaders, thus 
left to themselves, for some time ably sustained the cause of 
their country. The operations of the Irish army were chiefly 
directed by the brave and patriotic Sarsfield.* During the 
following year, 1691, James obtained some fresh forces and 
military stores from Louis of France, who was still anxious 
to protract the war in Ireland. But the exiled monarch could 
not resist the opportunity of insulting his Irish subjects, even 
in this crisis of their fate. Although under a thousand obli- 
gations to the gallant Sarsfield, the favorite of the people, 
still he would not intrust him with the command of the 
army, but conferred it on St. Ruth, a French general of some 
reputation, whose subsequent conduct by no means tended 
to soothe the irritated feelings of the Irish general and 
army. 

7. The first operation of the French general was the de- 
fence of the town of Athlone, which was taken by the Eng- 
lish after a siege of several months. After the loss of Ath- 
lone, ;S^^. Ruth retired with his army into the county of Bos- 
common, and having taken up a favorable position near the 
ruins of the castle of Aughrim, prepared to decide the fate 
of Ireland by a single battle. The engagement w^as com- 
menced on both sides with equal resolution. At first the 
fortune of the day seemed to incline in favor of the Irish. 
The English were repulsed with slaughter in every onset ; 
a few moments more must have sealed their destruction. At 
this critical juncture, however, St. Ruth fell by a cannon-ball 
shot from the enemy's battery. This unfortunate circum- 

* Who was killed in the service of France, in 1701. 

What became of James? Whom did the Irish lose? What did he 
reply when asked if the Irish would fight again ? — 6. By whom was the 
Irish army chiefly directed? In 1691, what did James obtain? On 
whom was the chief command conferred ? — 7. After the loss of Athlone, 
where did St. Ruth retire? What did he prepare? What is said of 
the engagement? What was the fate of St. Ruth? 



IRELAND. 885 

stance changed the scale of victory. As the fallen General 
had not communicated his plan of action to any of the Irish 
leaders, no one was found at the moment capable of assum- 
ing the chief command. The Irish soldiers, unacquainted 
with the fall of their General, waited for new orders until it 
was too late to oppose the success of the enemy. As each 
troop and battalion now acted independently, their evolutions 
soon interfered with each other; the cavalry became mingled 
with the infantry, and before the close of the evening their 
retreat became general. 

8. Before the fall of St. Ruth, the Irish had scarcely lost a 
man ; but after that event they suffered severely. The number 
of the British killed and wounded was over two thousand 
men ; that of the Irish is said to have exceeded seven thou- 
sand. General Ginckle, who commanded the British forces, 
was but little elated by his victory at Aughrim. He felt 
that it was nothing better than a fortunate escape ; and from 
the spirit displayed by the enemy, he feared that the termi- 
nation of the war was still far distant. 

9. After the battle of Aughrim, the Irish forces retired to 
the city of Limerick, under the command of Sarsfield, who 
was again placed at the head of the army, although much 
controlled by the other leaders. As soon as time would 
permit, Ginckle laid siege to Limerick ; but as the task of re- 
ducing the place seemed hopeless, and as both parties were 
weary of hostilities, it was determined to conclude the pro- 
tracted war by a treaty. Accordingly, on the 23d of Septem- 
ber, a reluctant assent to this measure was wrung from 
Sarsfield by the other leaders, and on the evening of the 
same day a cessation of arms was granted, to afford an op- 
portunity for settling the terms of capitulation ; and by the 
8d of October, the articles of the Treaty of Limerick were 
concluded and solemnly signed by the different authorities 
on both sides. 

10. This celebrated treaty provided that all the Catholics 
should enjoy the free exercise of their religion, as in the 
reign of Charles II., and promised that their majesties would 
endeavor to procure them further security in this particular, 
when the Parliament should be convened. It was agreed 
that all the inhabitants of Limerick, all those in arms for 

What was the consequence of this misfortune? — 8, What was the loss 
on both sides ? What is said of General Ginckle ? — 9. Where did the 
Irish forces retire? What was finally determined? By the 3d of Octo- 
ber, what were concluded? — 10. By this treaty, wliat was provided? 
What was agreed ? 



S36 IRELAND. 

James, should enjoy their estates and pursue their profes- 
sions freely, as in the reign of Charles II., and that the 
Catholic gentry should be allowed to have arms, and should 
be required to take no oath but that of allegiance. 

11. Two days after the treaty was signed, a French fleet 
arrived off the coast, bearing reinforcements and a large 
supply of military stores. Never was there a more trying 
moment for the Irish leaders. Supplies sufficient to insure 
them a triumphant victory were at hand ; but the honor of 
their nation was pledged. The treaty of Limerick was 
signed ; that treaty they deemed inviolable ; the French 
fleet was dismissed, taking with it several regiments of 
the Irish soldiery, who preferred to pass the remainder of 
their days in a foreign land, rather than live in bondage at 
home. 

12. Unfortunately for the period of which we are speak- 
ing, religious fanaticism, or insane zeal, seemed to charac- 
terize almost every proceeding. The treaty of Limerick was 
loudly denounced by many of the reformed clergy, and Dr. 
Dopping, Protestanl Bishop of Meath, after condemning the 
articles of that treaty, declared that Protestants were not 
bound to keep faith with ''Papistsy^ 

In 1695, the Irish Parliament was assembled, and the first 
measure of that body wasjto inquire into the articles of the 
treaty of Limerick. A committee was appointed to consider 
what penal laws were already in force against the Catholics, 
not for the purpose of repealing them, as had been promised 
in the treaty, but to add others to their number. An act 
was passed to deprive Catholics of the means of educating 
their children, at home or abroad, and to render them inca- 
pable of being guardians of their own, or the children of 

* Papkf, Popish, Popery, Romish, Romanist, and Romanism are vulgar 
and offensive terms which were formerly applied to Catholics by their 
Protestant persecutors. The same malignant and uncultured spirit that 
produced the penal laws gave the world this mongrel brood of ragged, 
boorish words. It is said that " Papist " was first used as a nickname 
for Catholics by Martin Luther ; the others had their disgraceful origin 
in England. But no educated speaker or writer of our day can use such 
outcasts ; they are literary eyesores, forbidden alike by courtesy, good 
sense, and elegance of style. ' Things and persons should be called by 
their right names. — M. 



11. Two days after the treaty, what arrived? What was done with 
the French fleet? — 12. What is said of the treaty of Limerick? In 
1695, what took place ? What committee was appointed ? What penal 
laws were added ? 



IRELAND. 837 

others. A second act was passed to disarm all Catholics ; 
and lastly, an act to banish all Catholic priests and bishops 
from Ireland.* 



CHAPTER V. 

FROM THE REBELLION OF 1798 TILL 1880. 

EYEN a brief outline of this sad and interesting portion of 
Irish history cannot be given in this compendium. A few 
of the most important particulars must suffice. In 1782, Ire- 
land, through the voice of Henry Grattan,f demanded and 
obtained from England, the independence of her national 
legislature. But it was with the utmost reluctance, and 
under circumstances of imperious necessity, that these con- 
cessions were made by the British cabinet. The power- 
loving John Bull could not avoid playing superintendent in 
Ireland ; and in a few years the British Parliament imposed 
new restrictions on her trade and manufactures. This treach- 
erous and ungenerous proceeding excited a sudden and gen- 
eral indignation throughout the country. 

2. Among the various modes of agency adopted during 

* As even many educated persons seem to be ignorant of the brutal 
and atrocious character of the penal laws, we here summarize a few of 
them: (1.) Catholic peers were deprived of their right to sit in Parlia- 
ment. (2.) No Catholic could be elected as a member of Parliament. 
(3.) No Catholic would be permitted to vote or to hold any office of 
trust. (4.) Catholics were fined $300 a month if they absented them- 
selves from Protestant places of worship. (5.) Catholics were forbidden 
to keep arms, or to travel five miles from their homes. (6.) No Cath- 
olic could employ a Catholic teacher to educate his children ; and if he 
sent his children to other lands for education, he was subject to a fine 
of $500, and none of the children educated abroad could inherit any 
property in Ireland or England. (7.) Catholic priests who came into 
the country were to be hanged. (8.) Any Protestant might take away 
a Catholic's horse by simply paying the owner |25 — no matter what the 
real value of the animal might be. (9.) Any Catholic gentleman's 
child who became a Protestant, could at once take possession of his 
father's property. This fiendish and unchristian code disgraced the 
statute-books of England until fifty years ago. — M. 
, t See Biography of Emiiient Personages. 

What is said of a Catholic teacher? Of the child of a Catholic? 
"What rewards were oflfered ? 

Chapter V. — 1. In 1782, what did Ireland demand and obtain? 
What soon took place? — 2. What were the most conspicuous associa- 
tions ? 

29 W 



338 IRELAND. 

this period, was the institution of political clubs, which were 
formed under different titles. Of these, the United Irish- 
men and the Orangemen were the most conspicuous. In 
the month of November, during the year of 1791, the so- 
ciety of United Irishmen was instituted in the city of Dub- 
lin. The leading objects of this association seem to have 
been a pure and disinterested love of liberty, and was formed 
with the immediate view of combining into one phalanx as 
many as possible of their countrymen, without any distinc- 
tion of creed, for the purpose of effecting a change in the 
government of Ireland, or, as they themselves declared, "for 
the purpose of forwarding a brotherhood of affection, a 
communion of rights, and a union of power among Irish- 
men of every religious persuasion, and thereby to obtain 
a complete reform in the legislature, founded on principles 
of civil, political, and religious liberty." Catholic emancipa- 
tion and parliamentary reform were the avowed objects of 
their pursuit. By the former was understood a total aboli- 
tion of all political distinctions between Catholics and Protes- 
tants ; by the latter, the)'' meant to exclude the borough 
representation from the House of Commons. 

3. To oppose the objects of the United Irishmen, the 
Protestant aristocracy of Ireland proceeded to array an asso- 
ciation of their own, under the name of the Orange party, 
which was formed for the purpose of perpetuating the penal 
laws and supporting the measures of the government, by 
disavowing every innovation. The leading features of 
Orangeism may be traced to a period much anterior to this. 
Sir Jonah Barrington considers that the idea of the Orange 
society arose from the association of the aldermen of Skin- 
ner's alley, which owed its origin to the restoration of the 
old corporation body to their former power and privileges, 
after the departure of James II. Their grand festival was 
held on the 12th of July, the anniversary of the battle of the 
Boyne. The charter-toast, the antiquity of which was of 
so ancient a date as the year 1689, was drunk by all the 
members present on their bare knees, the Grand Master pro- 
nounced it aloud in the following words : " To the glorious, 
pious, and immortal memory of the great and good King 

When was the society of the I 'nited Irishmen instituted ? What were 
tlie leading objects of this association ? What were their avowed objects 
cf pursuit? What was understood by these? — 3. To oppose the objects 
of the United Irishmen, to what did the aristocracy proceed? What 
does Sir Jonah Barrington consider? When is their grand festival 
lield ? tjow is the charter-toast drank? What are the words? 



IRELAND. 839 

William, not forgetting Oliver Cromwell, who assisted in 
redeeming us from popery, slavery, arbitrary power, etc." 
The concluding part of the toast was a tissue of vulgar and 
impious curses on Catholic priests, bishops, etc. This toast 
was afterwards adopted by the Orange Association. 

4. In the year 1184, a new association grew into exist- 
ence, under the name of the Peep-of-the-day Boys, who com- 
mitted the most fearful depredations in the county of Ar- 
magh. In a few years, however, they dropped this title, 
and assumed that of Orangemen. 

The first Orange lodge was formed on the 21st of Sep- 
tember, 1*795, at the house of a man named Sloan, in the 
village of Loughall. The members pledged themselves, by 
the most solemn oath, to support and defend, to the utmost 
of their power, the King and his heirs, so long as he or they 
shall support the Protestant ascendency. 

5. In 1*796, hopeless of parliamentary relief, the United 
Irishmen overcame their repugnance to foreign aid, and re- 
solved to solicit the assistance of France. Theobald Wolf Tone 
was commissioned for that purpose, and in the course of the 
summer, Lo7'd Edward Fitzgerald and Arthur 0^ Connor 
were sent over to negotiate a treaty between the French 
republic and Ireland. An armament carrying fifteen thou- 
sand men, with a considerable amount of arms and military 
stores, sailed for Ireland ; but the fleet being dispersed by a 
violent storm, only a few vessels arrived in Bantry Bay, and 
these returned home without being able to effect a landing. 

6. In the mean time, it became the determined policy of 
the government to goad the Irish people by torture into a 
premature insurrection, before the organization of their plans 
eould be completed. Martial law was proclaimed in several 
counties. A savage soldiery were encouraged to emulate 
each other in acts of cruelty. The eloquent and patriotic 
Grattan truly styled them "a banditti of murderers, com- 
mitting massacre in the name of God, and exercising des- 
potic power in the name of liberty." The tortures of whip- 
ping, half-hanging, and the pitch-cap were put into active 
operation.* The humble dwellings of the peasantry were 

* These military savages of England frequently cut off the ears and 

What was the concluding part ? — 4. In 1784, what took place ? When 
and where was the first Orange lodge formed ? How do the members 
pledge themselves? — 5. In 1796, what did the United Irishmen resolve? 
Who were sent to negotiate a treaty ? What armament sailed ? What 
happened to the fleet? — 6. What became the policy of the government ? 
What was proclaimed ? 



840 IRELAND. 

burned, their sons tortured or murdered, and their daughters 
subjected to all the outrages of brutal passion. It was a 
dark period of cruelty and horrors unspeakable. The most 
liberal rewards were held out to informers. In consequence 
of this, the government soon became acquainted with all the 
proceedings of the United Irishmen, and most of the active 
leaders w^ere arrested at Oliver Bond's house, Dublin, on the 
12th of March, 1798. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who hap- 
pened to be absent, eluded pursuit until the 19th of May, 
when, after a desperate resistance, in which he was mortally 
wounded, he was made prisoner. The Shearses and others, 
who had been chosen to fill the places of those arrested at 
Bond's, were betrayed to the government by a militia cap- 
tain, named Armstrong. 

7. On the 23d of May, the insurrection broke out in the 
counties of Kildare and Carlow. The peasants had no arms 
but clumsy pikes and a few guns in bad repair, and, of course, 
they were easily defeated. The insurgents were next routed 
at Carlow, with a loss of four hundred slain ; and two hun- 
dred more, who fell into the hands of the victors, were exe- 
cuted by martial law. At Oulart Hill they w^ere more suc- 
cessful ; they defeated the North Cork militia, took the town 
of Enniscorthy and the city of Wexford. Here, elated by 
success and exasperated by the cruelties they had received, 
they committed a fearful retaliation on a number of the 
royalists who fell into their hands. They were again de- 
feated at Boss and repulsed at Arklow ; and the loss of the 
battle of Ballynahinch terminated the rebellion in Ulster. 

8. After these defeats, the insurgents of Wexford were 

noses of innocent Irish persons, who fell into their hands. Some- 
times they even ran burning pitch into the eyes of their unhappy vic- 
tims. A poor, harmless man, named Driscoll, was three times strangled 
and four times flogged, 6eca7<se a Catholic prayer-book was found in his pos- 
session. On account of his horrible atrocities, a sergeant of the Cork 
Militia was called Turn the Devil, and he was only one of an army of 
demons in human form. When the patriotic Father Murphy was killed 
at Arklow, the soldiei-s of the ancient British regiment, says Gordon, 
cut open his dead body, took out his heart, roasted his remains, and 
oiled their boots with the grease which dropped therefrom. Such was 
English rule in Ireland less than a century ago ! — M. 



At the same time, what was held out? What followed in consequence 
of this ?— 7. On the 23d of May, what took place ? What is said of the 
insurgents? Where were they more successful? What followed the 
taking of Enniscorthy and Wexford? Where were they again de- 
feated? 



IRELAND. 341 

reduced to the necessity of maintaining a defensive warfare, 
their last hope being to protract the contest until assistance 
should arrive from France. Their principal encampment 
was on Vinegar Hill, a lofty eminence near the town of 
Enniscorthy. Here they determined to die or conquer. To 
this point, therefore, the government directed all its dispos- 
able force. The royal army of twenty thousand men, and a 
formidable train of artillery, approached this place in four 
different divisions ; and on the 22d of June was fought the 
memorable battle of Vinegar Hill, which terminated unfor- 
tunately for the Irish forces, who were defeated with im- 
mense slaughter, not, however, for want of courage and res- 
olution, but for the want of arms and ammunition. This 
disastrous engagement ended the eventful struggle of Ireland 
for her national rights and the redress of her countless griev- 
ances. The total loss of property during the contest is esti- 
mated at about fifteen millions of dollars. Of the royal army 
about thirty thousand were slain ; but not less than fifty 
thousand of the insurgents were destroyed. 

9. Late in August, when all the disturbances had been sup- 
pressed, a small force of eleven hundred men, commanded by 
General Humbert, arrived from France and landed at Kil- 
lala. Want of means prevented Humbert from obtaining 
any particular advantage, and on the 8th of September he 
was forced to surrender. A second attempt was made by 
the French Directory in the following month. A small 
squadron sent from Brest was discovered by Admiral War- 
ren, and forced to engage at great disadvantage. The Hoche, 
of eighty guns, and six frigates, were captured ; and this 
ended the efforts of France towards the liberation of Ire- 
land. 

10. Scarcely had the insurrection ended, when the ques- 
tion of the union of Ireland to Great Britain began to be 
agitated. It was so decidedly unpopular, that, exhausted as 
the country was by the late struggle, its independence might 
have been maintained by an appeal to arms, had not the 
minister, by a wonderful mixture of corruption and cunning, 
effectually broken the strength of opposition. The measure 
of the Union was rejected in the session of 1799 by the 
House of Commons ; but after the most unparalleled scenes 

8. Where was their principal encampment? What took place on 
the 22d of June? What was the total loss of property? What the 
loss of the roj'al army ? Of the insurgents ? — 9. Late in August, what 
arrived? What was done in the following month ?-^10. What now 
began to be agitated ? W^hat was it ? When was it rejected ? 
29* 



342 IRELAND. 

of bribery and deception, the measure was carried in the 
next session of the Irish parliament, which then consisted 
of two hundred and seventy-eight, only by a majority of forty- 
three votes. It was on the first day of January, 1801, at 
the hour of noon, that the imperial united standard was for 
the first time mounted on the Bedford tower in Dublin, while 
the guns of the royal battery in Phoenix Park announced to 
prostrate Ireland that her national independence was no 
more, that her guilt-stained Parliament had effected its own 
annihilation. An independent country was thus degraded 
into a province — Ireland, as a nation, was extinguished I 

11. The Catholics were induced to give a sort of tacit 
assent to the measure, by the promise of obtaining their 
emancipation, a promise which was not fulfilled until nearly 
thirty years after this event, and then only wrung from the 
reluctant grasp of the bigoted British ministry. Hopes in- 
consistent with such a promise were at the same time held 
out to the most violent Protestants ; money to the amount of 
three millions of pounds was distributed in bribes to all those 
who would favor the views of the government ; besides this, 
the enormous sum of one million two hundred and seventy- 
five thousand pounds was given as a compensation to bor- 
oughs for sending members favorable to the Union. 

12. The great evils entailed on Ireland by the Union were 
the vast increase of her national debt and the great inequality 
of her representation in the imperial Parliament. By the 
act of the Union, Ireland was to have a separate exchequer, 
and was only to be taxed in proportion to her own national 
debt, which at that time was only twenty-six million eight 
hundred and forty-one thousand two hundred and nineteen 
pounds, while that of England reached the enormous sum of 
four hundred and twenty million three hundred and five 
thousand nine hundred and forty-four pounds. In 1816, the 
British government thought proper to unite the English and 
Irish exchequers, in direct violation of the act of the Union, 
and thus the debt of Ireland was increased to one hundred 
and ten million seven hundred and thirty thousand five 

After what manner and by what majority was it carried in the Irish 
parliament? In 1801, what Vas done for the first time?— 11. What is 
said of the Catholics ? What hopes were held out to Protestants ? What 
sum was distributed in bribes ? What sum was given to boroughs ? — 
12. What are the great evils entailed on Ireland by the Union? At 
that time, what was the national debt of Ireland and of England ? In 
1816, what did the British government do? By this act, what was the 
debt of Ireland increased to ? 



IRELAND. 343 

hundred and nineteen pounds. As the Irish representatives 
in the British Parliament are far inferior in number to those 
of the English, it follows, as a matter of course, that no 
measure conflicting with the English interest will pass that 
body in favor of Ireland. Moreover, while Ireland is de- 
prived of her national legislature, her representatives in the 
British Parliament are obliged to reside, a great portion of 
their time, in the capital of England, thus drawing from 
their native land a great amount of wealth which would 
otherwise be spent at home. This is one of the many evils 
which to this day retards the prosperity of that long-suffering 
country. 

13. In 1821, George TV. visited Ireland. His object was 
to make political capital — to delude the oppressed Catholics 
with empty civilities instead of substantial concessions. But 
the Irish were not to be thus deluded. Daniel O'Connell, a 
law3^er of great ability, assumed the leadership of the Cath- 
olics. He founded the Catholic Association, which soon 
embraced within its circle all the friends of civil and religious 
liberty. The claims of an outraged people became irresist- 
ible. In 1829, the act of Catholic Emancipation passed the 
British Parliament. It was the work chiefly of the illustri- 
ous O'Connell,* aided by such men as Shiel and Bishop Doyle. 
The statute-book, at last, was cleared of those brutal enact- 
ments under which Catholics had groaned for centuries. The 
followers of the Ancient Faith, however, are still excluded 
from the throne, and from the offices of Lord-Lieutenant of 
Ireland and Lord-Chancellor of England. 

14. The National Repeal Association was founded by 
O'Connell, in 1840, for the purpose of obtaining a repeal of 
the Union. The agitation extended itself quickly over the 
whole Island; but the despotic government of England 
determined that there should be no repeal. Queen Victoria 
denounced the measure in a speech from the throne. A 
prosecution was commenced against O'Connell and other 
leaders of the repeal movement. They were cast into 

* See Short Biographies of Eminent Personages. 

As the Irish representatives in the British Parliament are inferior in 
nnmber to those of England, what follows ? While Ireland is deprived 
of her national legislature, what is said of her representatives? — 13. 
What is remarked of George IV.'s visit to Ireland? Of Daniel O'Con- 
nell ? What did he found ? What act was passed in 1829 ? Of what 
was the statute-book cleared? — 14. What is said of the Repeal Associ- 
ation ? Of English government and the Queen ? What happened to 
the leaders ? 



344 IRELAND. 

prison ; but the House of Lords reversed the judgment of 
the lower court, and in September, 1844, the patriotic pris- 
oners were liberated. The proceedings of the lower court 
were a gross outrage on justice. 

15. In the midst of political contention, gaunt famine 
visited Ireland. The potato crop withered away mysteri- 
ously. A shout of alarm arose, and in 1841 a doomed 
people beheld the awful spectre of starvation. It was a 
stupendous calamity, and the British government was never 
'' a friend in need" to Ireland. The unhappy people starved, 
died in thousands by the waysides, and hastened to foreign 
lands in millions. During the last third of a century fully 
three millions of Irish have made their homes in the United 
States. 

16. This wonderful people, whose faith, bravery, genius, 
and sufferings are known all over the world, are now strug- 
gling for honest legislation and just land laws with the most 
tyrannical government that ever existed in a Christian coun- 
try. The cause of the Irish people is just, and every just 
man wishes them success. 

IT. "Every remarkable man," wrote Lacordaire, "has 
been fond of letters ; " and the same can be said of every 
remarkable nation. The Irish have always been a literary 
people. To song and legend and history they have clung, 
through sunshine and shadow, with the same lofty tenacity 
as to faith and fatherland, No misfortune has been able to 
dull the Irish mind, however it may have checked its expres- 
sion. During the last one hundred and fifty years English 
literature has been enriched by Swift, Steele, Goldsmith, 
Burke, Sheridan, Grattan, Doyle, Griffin, Banim, Davis, 
O^Gonnell, Shiel, Moore, Lever, 0'' Curry, MacHale, and 
other Irish writers.* 

* The Prose and Poetry of Ireland. — For a fuller account of Ireland, 
see McGee's or Haverty's History of Ireland, and The^baud's Irish Race. 

What is said of famine? What became of the people ? How many- 
Irish came to the United States during the last third of a century ?— 
16. For what are the Irish now struggling? W^hat is said of their 
cause? — 17. What is said of the Irish as a literary people? Name 
some Irish writers of the last century and a half. 



BOOK X. 
SPAIN. 

CHAPTER I. 

ITS EARLY HISTORY. 

SPAIN was at an early period called Hispania, or Westerrif 
because it was the most western situation known to the an- 
cients. It was also distinguished by the name of Iberia, from 
the river Iber, now Ebro. Its present name, Hispania, or Spain, 
is said to be derived from a Phoenician word which signifies 
abounding in rabbits, as these animals, according to Strabo, 
were formerly very numerous in this country. The original 
inhabitants were the Celts, the same race that peopled most 
of the other countries of western Europe, although the 
Spanish historians refer the origin of their nation back to 
the days of Tubal, the son of Japhet. 

2. Attracted by the fertility of the soil, the Phoenicians, 
who were the earliest navigators, passed over to Spain and 
built the city of Cades, now Cadiz, as early as the year 900 
before the Christian era. The Phoenicians were displaced 
by the Carthaginians shortly before the first Punic war, and 
the Carthaginians, in their turn, were expelled from the 
country by the Romans, in whose power it remained until 
it was wrested from them by the irruption of northern bar- 
barians. For three centuries it was the richest province of 
the Roman empire. The Gothic princes held possession of 
Spain until near the middle of the eighth century, when 
their empire was overthrown by the followers of Mahomet 
or the Saracens. 

Chapter T. — 1. What was Spain early called? What is said of its 
present name ? What were the original inhabitants ? — 2. Who passed 
over to Spain ? When ? By whom were the Phcenicians displaced ? 
What is said of the Gothic princes ? 

345 



346 SPAIN. 

3. These victorious infidels — known also in Spain by the 
name of Moors — in a few years possessed themselves of nearly 
the whole country, which was for some time governed by 
the viceroy of the Saracen Caliphs. At the approach of the 
invaders, the Goths retired to the mountainous district of 
Asturias, where, under their leader Don Pelagio, they estab- 
lished a kingdom, which increased in power and gradually 
extended over other parts of the country. Spain was di- 
vided by the Moors into a number of separate states, of 
which the most considerable were those of Cordova and 
Granada. For some centuries the history of Spain presents 
a continual series of contests between the Moors and the 
Christians. During this long protracted struggle with the 
infidels, several distinct Christian kingdoms grew into exist- 
ence, of which Castile, Leon, Arragon, and Navarre were the 
most important. 



CHAPTER II. 

MODERN SPAIN.— FROM A.D. 1479 TO 1880. 

IN the year 14*79, Ferdinand II., King of Arragon, formed 
a matrimonial alliance with Isabella, Queen of Castile 
and Leon, and thus their kingdoms became united. Navarre 
was subsequently conquered, and, of all the Moorish posses- 
sions in Spain, the kingdom of Granada alone remained. 
Attracted by the beauty and fertility of the country, and 
impelled by a desire of expelling the determined enemies of 
Christianity, Ferdinand and Isabella formed the project of 
reducing Granada. Having made the necessary preparations, 
they entered the country at the head of their united armies, 
and, after meeting with a gallant resistance from Ahdali, the 
Moorish King, Granada was taken and the Moors expelled. 
The fall of Granada terminated the Saracen empire in Spain 
after the followers of Mahomet had held possession of it for 
nearly seven centuries. For the first time, the whole country 
was united into one monarchy. 

3. What were the infidels named? At their approach, what did the 
Goths do ? How was Spain divided ? During the struggle, what grew 
into existence ? 

Chapter II. — 1. In 1479, what took place? What is said of Na- 
varre ? What did Ferdinand and Isabella do ? What did the fall of 
Granada terminate ? 



SPAIN. 347 

2. Ferdinand and Isabella, having at length subdued and 
expelled the enemies of their country, turned their attention 
to the internal improvement of their kingdom. Rapine and 
outrage, the natural consequence of the long and sanguinary 
war that had desolated the country, prevailed in every quar- 
ter. These evils they labored to remove, and by a wise and 
well regulated policy they succeeded in restoring order and 
tranquillity throughout their dominions. It was during this 
period, and under the patronage of Isabella, that the great 
Christopher Columbus discovered America, an event which 
added an immense wealth and possessions to the Spanish 
monarchy, and raised it for a time above any other in Eu- 
rope. 

3. In 1517, Charles I. succeeded to the Spanish throne. 
On the death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, he put 
forward his claim to the imperial crown ; and at the same time, 
Francis I., King of France, declared himself a candidate for 
the empire. The crown had previously been offered by the 
electors of Germany to Frederick, Duke of Saxony, v/ho 
declined the offer, and recommended the Spanish monarch 
as the most suitable person on whom it could be conferred. 
Charles was accordingly elected Emperor in 1520, and as- 
sumed the title of Charles Y. He now became the most 
powerful sovereign of Europe. His dominions extended 
over Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, and a part of Italy, 
besides his colonial possessions in America. 

4. The reign of Charles was almost one unbroken series 
of hostilities, chiefly with his famous rival, Francis I. of 
France. A few years previous to his death he formed the 
extraordinary resolution of resigning his dominions to his 
son Philip, who had married Queen Mary of England. Ac- 
cordingly, in the presence of a numerous assembly at Brus- 
sels, having previously enumerated the principal events of 
his reign, he solemnly resigned his throne and transferred 
the sovereign authority to his son Philip with so much pa- 
rental affection that the whole assembly melted into tears. 
After this he retired to the monastery of St. Justin, near 
Placentia, attended only by a few domestics, without pomp 
or splendor. In this humble and peaceful abode one of the 
most famous monarchs of the world ended his days. The man- 

2. To what did they turn their attention? During this period what 
took place? — 3. In 1517. who succeeded to the throne? On the death 
of Maximilian, what did Charles do? When was he elected emperor? 
What is said of his dominions ? — 4. What is said of the reign of Charles? 
What resolution did he form ? Wheie did he retire ? 



348 SPAIN. 

ner in which he closed his eventful life was extraordinary. A 
short time previous to his death, stretching himself in a coffin, 
he caused the funeral rites to be performed, and after the cer- 
emony was over, he retired to his apartment in the deepest 
melancholy. He was soon after seized with a violent fever, 
which terminated his life, in the fifty-eighth year of his age ; 
and thus died Charles Y., one of the great rulers of modern 
times. 

5. Philip II. succeeded his father to the throne of Spain. 
The most important events of his reign were the revolt of 
the Low Countries,'^ which, after a long and bloody contest, 
succeeded in establishing their independence ; and his unsuc- 
cessful invasion of England, in 1588, which ill-conducted 
measure cost him the ruin of his vast fleet, called the Invin- 
cible Armada. He was succeeded in the throne by his son, 
Philip III. The subsequent history of Spain affords but 
few events of interest or importance until the reign of Ferdi- 
nand YII., who, in 1808, wrested the sceptre from his father, 
and placed himself upon the throne. He had not, however, 
long enjoyed the usurpation, when both father and son were 
compelled to resign their claim to Napoleon, Emperor of 
Prance, who placed his brother Joseph upon the Spanish 
throne. The Spaniards rose in opposition to this tyrannical 
measure, and had recourse to England for assistance, and, 
by their united efforts, the French were finally expelled from 
the peninsula, a. d. 1813. 

6. In 1812, the Spanish Cortes, assembled at Cadez, com- 
pleted a new constitution for the kingdom. Ferdinand YII., 
being set at liberty by Napoleon, whose star of fortune was 
now on the decline, was invited by the Cortes to take an 
oath to support the new constitution. He declined. An 
insurrection, however, broke out in 1820, and the king was 
compelled to proclaim the constitution of 1812. A ministry 
was formed ; a free press established, and the Inquisition 
suppressed. These new and forced measures were evidently 
not to the taste of Ferdinand, as, only three years later, he 
called in the assistance of a French army, and, after a short 
struggle, his unruly Cortes restored him to absolute power. 

* Now Holland and Belgium. 

How did he close his eventful life? — 5. Who succeeded? What 
were the most important events of his reign? By whom was he 
succeeded ? What is said of the subsequent history of Spain ? What 
did the Spaniards do ?— 6. What is said of the Cortes and King Ferdi- 
nand ? What occurred in 1820 ? What three years later ? 



SPAIN. 849 

It was during" this reign that Florida was sold to the 
United States for five million dollars. The attempts to re- 
conquer the revolted Spanish colonies in America proved a 
miserable failure; and, in 1826, Spain lost her last hold on 
the mainland of the New World. 

7. The king abolished the Salic law in 1830, in conse- 
quence of which his daughter, Isabella, became heir to the 
throne in place of his brother, Don Carlos. This soon 
became the cause of countless troubles and insurrections. 
The death of Ferdinand YII., in 1833, was the signal for a 
general civil war. Don Carlos was proclaimed king in the 
north of Spain, and was supported by the country people 
and a majority of the clergy. But the Queen-Regent, who 
ruled during the minority of her daughter, had a powerful 
following. She appealed to France and England, and a 
British force hastened to her assistance. It was only after 
an unfortunate struggle of seven years that the Carlists were 
overpowered, and Don Carlos fled to France. In 1843 the 
Cortes declared the young Queen of age, and she took her 
seat on the shaky throne as Isabella II. Three years later, 
she married. On account of numerous piracies, Spain 
declared war against Morocco in 1859, and an army, under 
Marshal O'Donnell, defeated the Moors. A treaty of peace 
was signed, and the Sultan of Morocco agreed to pay four 
hundred million reals and to cede large portions of territory 
to Spain. The troubled reign of Isabella II. came to an end 
in 1868. The insurrection army defeated the royal forces at 
Alcolea in 1868, and the Queen fled to France. A provisional 
government was established. The dissatisfied Spaniards cast 
an anxious glance over Europe for a suitable candidate to fill 
their vacant throne, and this search was the indirect cause 
of the Franco-Prussian war. 

8. In 18*70, however, the Cortes elected the second son of 
Victor Emmanuel, and he was declared sovereign under the 
title of Amadous I. The young King did his best to rule 
the country as a constitutional monarch, but failed utterly, 
and had the good sense to abdicate in 1873. A Carlist 
insurrection also added to the miseries of distracted Spain. 
A republic, however, was established, and three presidents 
followed each other in rapid succession. The efforts of the 
government to put down the Carlists were unsuccessful. 

What did Spain sell and lose in America during this reign? — 7. 
What was abolished in 1830? What war occurred on the death of 
Ferdinand? Who became ruler in 1843? What happened in 1869 ? 
In 1868 ?— 8. Who became king in 1870? What followed? 
30 



350 SPAIN. 

Change followed change, until, in 1875, Alfonso, son of the 
exiled Isabella II., was called to the throne, and proclaimed 
King. He suppressed the Carlist insurrection, and, under his 
rule, peace has happily been restored to Spain. 

9. Progress, Government, and Literature. — In spite of 
countless internal disturbances, the present century has wit- 
nessed great material progress in Spain. Since 1851 the 
onward movement of the nation has been as rapid as that 
of any of the great European powers. The population 
has greatly increased. The first railroad was opened in 1848. 
It ran from Barcelona to Mataro, a distance of only eighteen 
and a half miles. Railways are now numerous. Agriculture, 
commerce, and manufactures are carried on with activity and 
success. The system of public instruction is well organized. 
Spain has ten universities, the best known of which are 
those of Madrid, Granada, Barcelona, and Salamanca. 

The form of government, which has undergone many 
changes during this century, is now a constitutional mon- 
archy. The Cortes is divided into the Senate and the Con- 
gress. Every Senator must be a man of position, forty- 
years of age, and a Spaniard by birth. The Congress, or 
Lower House, is renewed every three years. It is composed 
of one deputy to each forty thousand of the population. The 
Cortes meet for at least four months of every year. 

The literature of Spain is rich and varied. From the six- 
teenth to the eighteenth century, among a host of writers, 
we find the names of the famous lyric poets Leon and 
Herrara ; the great dramatists Vega and Calderon, and 
Cervantes, the immortal author of '^ Don Quixote.^^ Among 
the best known Spanish writers of the present age are 
Balmes, Donoso Cortes, Ulloa, Munoz, and Castelar. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE INQUISITION. 



CONNECTED with the history of Spain there is one 
institution that claims a passing notice, namely, the 
Inquisition. This institution was established in different 

Who was called to the throne in 1875? — 9. What is said of the prog- 
ress of Spain ? Government ? Literature ? 

Chapteh III. — 1. Why was the Inquisition established? 



SPAIN. 351 

countries of Europe, chiefly for the purpose of preventing- 
innovations in the established religion of the realm. Its 
origin is dated as far back as the Council of Yerona, held in 
the year 1184; although it was not legally established until 
the year 1233, in virtue of the bull of Gregory IX., addressed 
to the Provincial of Toulouse, and the superintendence of it 
at that period was confided to the order of the Dominicans, 
about twelve years after the death of their founder, St. 
Dominic. But it was only in the year 1484 that the con- 
stitutional rules and order of the tribunal were drawn up 
and published by Cardinal Torquemada, in conjunction with 
the King of Spain. 

2. Towards the close of the twelfth century, the Albigen- 
ses seemed to threaten the peace of the Church and the 
stability of the State, and, for the security of both, it was 
deemed expedient to send among them certain ecclesiastical 
commissioners, to inquire into the nature of their errors, 
and to endeavor to reclaim them. These commissioners 
were called Inquisitors, and from them the institution 
derived its name. It does not appear that the early inquisi- 
tors ever made use of any other arms to oppose the progress 
of heresy than those of prayer, patience, and instruction, 
and, while it remained purely an ecclesiastical tribunal, no 
coercive measures were ever adopted. 

3. In the process of time, the various sovereigns of Europe 
passed severe laws against all those who promulgated or 
obstinately maintained doctrines contrary to those estab- 
lished in their respective dominions ; but as the offences in 
those cases were always of a religious nature, it became 
necessary to refer the accused to ecclesiastical judges. Hence 
it was that the tribunal of the Inquisition was adopted in 
different countries, when it ceased to be ecclesiastical, and 
became a civil tribunal. 

4. The following circumstances led to its establishment 
in Spain: Towards the end of the fifteenth century, the 
Mahometan power in that country was destroyed by the 
united efforts of Ferdinand and Isabella, The Moors were 
expelled. Many, however, remained, and those so mingled 
with the Spanish population, that it became diflBcult to dis- 

What is said of its origin? What took place in 1484?— 2. What is 
said of the Albigenses ? What was deemed expedient ? What were 
the commissioners called ? What does not appear ? — 3. In the process 
of time, what was done by the sovereigns of Europe ? What became 
necessary ? Hence what followed ? — 4. What circumstances led to its 
establishment in Spain ? 



362 SPAIN. 

criminate between them. Their well-known hostility to the 
government and aversion to Christianity caused them to be 
a subject of continual alarm. To augment the danger, the 
power and influence of the Jews, at this period, in Spain, 
became exceedingly great ; and they finally broke out into 
open rebellion. The Cortes now demanded that severe and 
coercive measures should be adopted against them ; and, as 
the danger increased, Ferdinand conceived that, in order to 
save Spain, nothing would contribute more eflfectually than 
the Inquisition. To this measure Isabella at first strongly 
objected ; but at length she was induced to assent, and the 
institution was accordingly introduced about the year 1484. 

5. The tribunal was composed of one supreme head, called 
the Inquisitor- General, who was either a Bishop or an 
Archbishop, and of eight ecclesiastical counsellors, of whom 
six were always seculars, and two regulars, one invariably 
of the Dominican Order. The inferior inquisitors possessed 
no power to do anything without the approbation of the 
Inquisitor-General ; neither could the latter execute any 
measure without the concurrence of supreme council. The 
duty of the tribunal of the Inquisition was simply to deter- 
mine upon the clearest evidence, whether the individual 
arraigned before it was guilty or not of those charges 
declared capital by the civil law. If guilty, the sentence 
was given accordingly. Beyond this, the Inquisitors had 
nothing whatever to do with the accused, who was then left 
to the secular power, to be dealt with according as the laws 
of the State had ordained. The ecclesiastics, who composed 
the tribunal of the Inquisition, had no power to condemn 
any one to death, and on no occasion do we find the name 
of any priest inscribed on a warrant for an execution. 

6. The Inquisition could not be introduced into any coun- 
try without the consent of the government ; and when once 
established, it was generally under the immediate control of 
the sovereign. The King alone appointed the Inquisitor- 
General, who, in his turn, nominated the particular inquisi- 
tors, subject to the approbation of the King. In diflFerent 
countries various punishments were inflicted on those de- 
clared guilty of capital offences by the tribunal of the In- 

What did the Cortes demand? What is said of Isabella? — 5. Of 
what is the tribunal composed? What is said of the inferior inquisi- 
tors ? What was the duty of the tribunal ? What is said of the eccle- 
siastics who composed the tribunal ? — 6. What is said of the Inquisi- 
tion? Of the king? What is said of the punishments inflicted in 
difierent countries? 



SPAIN. 353 

quisition. At Rome no one was ever known to have suffered 
death in consequence of any sentence coming from the In- 
quisitorial tribunal. In Spain the cruel torture of burning" 
to death was the usual punishment inflicted on those who 
obstinately maintained and promulgated erroneous doctrines, 
or adopted them again after having renounced them. The 
property of the persons thus condemned was confiscated to 
the state. The other punishments were less severe, and con- 
sisted in some slight penance or temporary confinement. If, 
however, the accused recanted what was thought to be 
heterodox opinions, and gave signs of repentance, his trial 
immediately ceased, and no punishment was inflicted.* 

* For a detailed account of this institution, see Letters on the Inquisi' 
tion, by Count de Maistre. 

At Kome ? In Spain ? What was done with the property of con- 
demned persons ? If the accused recanted, what was done ? 
30* X 



BOOK XI. 
ITALY. 

CHAPTER I. 

FROM THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST TO THE 
DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VII.— A. JD. 476 TO 1085. 

AFTER the downfall of the Roman Empire of the West, 
in 476, the Heruli overran Italy and conquered the 
country. But their kingdom was of short duration. In 
the short space of thirteen years, Theodoric, the King of 
the Ostro-Goths,* or Eastern Goths, invaded Italy, defeated 
and slew Odoacer, the King of the Heruii, and usurped 
his dominions, a. d. 493. 

Theodoric, commonly called the Great, fixed his residence 
at Ravenna. He was an Arian in belief, but tolerated his 
Catholic subjects ; his administration of the government 
showed him to have been a prince of great abilities. He 
died after a reign of thirty-three years. 

2. Italy was wrested from the power of the Goths about 
the middle of the sixth century, by Belisarius and Narses, 
the generals of Justinian, and again annexed to the East- 
ern Empire, of which Constantinople was the capital. It 
next fell into the hands of the Lombards. Alboinus, the 
Lombard King, invaded Italy, and was proclaimed king of 
the country about the year 568. Their sovereignty in Italy 
lasted for about two hundred and six years, under the reigns 
of twenty-two successive kings. 

* In history, the Goths are distinguished as the Ostro-Goths, or Eastern 
Goths, from the Visi-Goths, or the Western Goths. — M. 

Chapter I. — 1. When and by whom was Italy conquered? What 
did Theodoric do ? Where did he fix his residence ? W^hat was he ? 
—2. By whom was Italy wrested from the Goths ? Into whose hands 
did it next fall? Who invaded the country? How long did their 
kingdom last ? 

354 



ITALY. 855 

3. About the year 174, Desiderous, or Didier, King of 
the Lombards, took Ravenna and carried his victorious arms 
to the walls of Rome. In this emergency, Pope Stephen 
sent to implore assistance from Constantine, the Greek Em- 
peror, in whose name the government of Rome was still 
exercised. But the Emperor was at that time too much en- 
gaged in religious disputes to think of sending his troops 
against the Lombards. In this extremity, the Romans em- 
braced the last resource which was left them, that of calling 
to their assistance Pepin, King of France. Pepin readily 
accepted the invitation ; but before any act of hostility, dep- 
uties were sent to Astolphus, the King of the Lombards, to re- 
quest that he would renounce his ambitious views. The fierce 
Lombard only answered the deputies with threats and insults. 

4. Pepin immediately crossed the Alps and marched his 
army into Italy, defeated the Lombards, and compelled them 
to conclude a treaty of peace on terms offered by the con- 
queror. Scarcely, however, had the French King departed, 
when the perfidious Lombard recommenced hostilities, and 
laid siege to Rome. Pope Stephen had recourse again to 
his royal protector, and Pepin once more crossed the Alps, 
and obliged Astolphus to accede to a second and more hu- 
miliating treaty. The French monarch, before he returned 
to his own dominions, made a solemn grant of his conquered 
territories in Italy to Pope Stephen, and his successors in 
the pontifical chair, thus raising the head of the Christian 
Church to the dignity of a temporal sovereign, A. d. 755. 
The territories thus bestowed were called the Ecclesiastical 
States. This grant was afterw^ards confirmed by the cele- 
brated Charlemagne, the successor of Pepin, who com- 
pletely destroyed the Lombard kingdom in Italy, after it 
had lasted for two hundred and six years, A. d. 774. 

5. The republic of Venice first grew into notice during 
the ninth century. The Venetians were for a considerable 
time the most commercial people of Europe. Florence be- 
came a republic in the thirteenth century, and maintained 
its independence for upwards of two hundred years. Genoa 

3. In 774, what took place? What did Pope Stephen? What is 
said of the emperor ? Whom did the Komans now call to their assist- 
ance? What was done first? — 4, What did Pepin immediately do? 
After his departure, what was done by the Lombards ? What did Pe- 
pin again do ? Before his return, what grant did he make ? What 
are these territories called? What was done by Charlemagne? — 
5. What are the principal states of Italy? What is said of the Vene- 
tians? Of Florence? 



356 ITALY. 

became a republic in 953, and was long distinguished for its 
commerce. The little republic of San Mariano is distinguished 
for its great antiquity, and for the purity of its republican prin- 
ciples. When the Pope was a temporal sovereign, it was 
under his immediate protection. It occupies a tract of only 
forty square miles, with a population of about seven thousand 
five hundred inhabitants. They are noted for their morality, 
patriotism, sobriety, industry, and hospitality. San Marino 
has retained its independence for more than thirteen hun- 
dred years, and so jealous of its liberties, that the laws re- 
quire the magistrates to be semi-annually elected. 

6. During the pontificate of Gregory YII., a serious al- 
tercation took place between the Pope and Henry IV., em- 
peror of Germany. It seems that it had been the custom 
in various countries for the emperors to put the newly elected 
bishops and abbots in possession of their benefices by giving 
them the ring and the crosier, the symbols of their pastoral 
authority. But as this ceremony, called investiture, seemed 
to apply the conferring of spiritual jurisdiction by temporal 
princes, it was considered as an encroachment on the rights of 
the Church. The emperor, Henry, however, besides exercising 
this privilege, carried on a shameful traffic in ecclesiastical dig- 
nities, bestowing them not on the most worthy, but on those 
who offered him the largest sums of money. Against these 
abuses, Fope Gregory loudly protested ; but his entreaties 
and expostulations were disregarded. Henry, instead of re- 
forming his conduct, convened an assembly at Worms, in 
which, with the aid of a body of schismatical associates, he 
presumed to pass sentence of deposition against the pontiff, 
A. D. 1076. 

7. Upon receiving intelligence of this outrageous act, 
Gregory proceeded to put into execution the fullest extent 
of his power. With the advice of a numerous Council, tak- 
ing into consideration the obduracy of Henry, and the 
repeated complaints of his oppressed subjects, he excommuni- 
cated him, and pronounced the monarch fallen from his 
royal dignity ; and at the same time declared the Germans 
no longer bound by their former oath of allegiance to him. 

What is said of Genoa ? For what is San Marino distinguished ? 
Under whose protection? How long has it maintained its indepen- 
dence ? — 6. During the pontificate of Gregory II., what took place ? 
What had been a custom in various countries ? What was this cere- 
mony called ? What was done at the assembly at Worms ? — 7. Upon 
receiving the intelligence, to what did Gregory proceed ? With the 
advice of a numerous council, what did he do ? 



ITALY. 357 

Singular as the power may appear which Gregory exercised 
on that occasion, still, it was admitted by his contemporaries 
that such power lay within the sphere of the papal jurisdic- 
tion, and it was supported by the civil and common jurispru- 
dence of that age. Although hostile to the independence 
of sovereigns, the power of deposition was often supported 
by the sovereigns themselves. Thus, when Richard I. of 
England was detained a prisoner in Germany, his mother, 
Eleanor, repeatedly solicited the pontiff to procure his liber- 
ation by the exercise of that authority which he possessed 
over temporal princes. Again, John, the successor of 
Richard, invoked the aid of the same authority to recover 
Normandy from the French King. At what particular 
period the Popes began to exercise this power, does not 
appear ; nor is it exactly certain what the particular circum- 
stances were which gave rise to it. 

8. At first they only exercised their spiritual censures; 
but, in an age when all ideas of justice were modelled after 
the feudal jurisprudence, it was soon admitted that princes, 
by their disobedience to the spiritual power of the Catholic 
Church, had violated the oath of their coronation, and be- 
come traitors to God ; and, as such, that they had forfeited 
their kingdoms ; and, in the case of Henry lY., we hear the 
Germans expressly declare that they had sworn fealty to 
him on condition that he should reign for the edification and 
not for the destruction of the Church, and were he to infringe 
this duty, they would think themselves no longer bound by 
their oath of allegiance to him.* 

To pronounce the sentence by which they were freed from 
the allegiance, was thought to belong exclusively to the 
sovereign pontiff, who was regarded as the head of the 
Church. 

9. At the news of the sentence pronounced by Pope 
Gregory YII., the princes of Germany assembled in order 
to appoint another Emperor in the place of Henry. The 
distressed monarch, seeing that there was no other way left 
of averting the storm that he had occasioned than by becom- 

■'^ See Schlegel's Philosophy of History. 

What is said of this power ? Of this doctrine ? Give some instances 
in which it was supported by sovereigns themselves. What does not 
appear? — 8. In an age, etc., what was soon admitted? In the case of 
Henry IV., what do we hear? To pronounce this sentence, belonged 
to whom? — 9. What did German princes do? What is said of the 
distressed monarch ? 



358 ITALY. 

ing reconciled to the See of Rome, departed for Italy, deter- 
mined to effect his reconciliation on any terms. Gregory 
had left Rome, and advanced as far as Canossa, on his way 
to Germany ; here Henry met him in a penitential garb, 
presented himself at the gates of the castle, and humbly 
begged to be admitted into the presence of the Sovereign 
Pontiff, acknowledging his guilt, and expressing his readi- 
ness to make all the satisfaction in his power. Gregory, 
who had repeatedly experienced the insincerity of the 
Emperor, kept him, by way of trial, in suspense for three 
days ; on the fourth day he gave him an audience, received 
his submission, and absolved him on certain conditions. 

10. The repentance of Henry was of short duration. 
Having assembled a numerous army, he refused to comply 
with the terms to which he had subscribed, and resumed his 
former course of violence against both Church and State. 
At length the German princes, disgusted with the perfidious 
conduct of their ruler, proceeded to the election of another. 
The choice fell upon Rudolph, Duke of Suabia. A civil war 
ensued, which terminated in the death of Rudolph, who per- 
ished in a battle near Marsburg, leaving Henry still master 
of the empire. Elated by this success, the conqueror marched 
into Italy, and, having taken Rome, he entered the Lateran 
palace, and caused the excommunicated bishop from Ravenna 
to be declared Pope, under the title of Clement III. In the 
meantime, Gregory had retired to the strong castle of St. 
Angelo, where he remained until the arrival of Robert 
Guiscard, the leader of the Normans, who obliged Henry to 
retire with his anti-pope. The lawful Pontiff was thus left 
master of the city ; but as party violence rendered it unsafe 
or unpleasant for him to remain there, he removed to Monte 
Cassino, and finally to Salerno, where he was taken danger- 
ously ill. A few moments before his death, he uttered these 
words: ''I have loved justice and hated iniquity; and, 
therefore, I die in a strange land;" after which this illustrious 
Pope calmly expired on the 25th of May, a. d. 1085. 

How did Henry meet Gregory ? How long was he kept on trial ? — 
10. What was the repentance of Henry? Having assembled his army, 
what did lie do ? Whom did the German princes choose in his place ? 
What ensued ? What was the fate of Rudolph ? What did Henry now 
do? W^here did Gregory retire? Where did he remove? What 
words did he utter before his death ? 



ITALY. 359 



CHAPTER II. 

FROM THE DEATH OF POPE GREGORY VIL TO THE PRES- 
ENT TIME.— A. D. 1085 TO 1880. 

IN 1311, Henry YII., Emperor of Germany, invaded 
Italy, and caused himself to be crowned King of Lom- 
hardy, at Milan. Italy was at this period in a state of 
anarchy, divided by two contending factions, which took 
their origin during the civil war in Germany ; the one in 
favor of the Emperor, styled the Ghibellines, the other 
his opponents, called the Guelphs. During the contest, the 
Pope, finding his situation at Rome unpleasant, removed 
the seat of his power to Avignon, in France. In 1377, the 
Holy See was again removed back to Rome by Pope 
Gregory IX. After his death, the citizens of Avignon and 
Rome contended for the freedom of election. This gave rise 
to that celebrated contest for the pontifical chair called the 
Great Schism of the West. It was finally settled by the 
Council of Constance, and tranquillity was restored by the 
election of Martin Colonna. 

2. The illustrious family of the Medici, at this period, 
attained to a high degree of eminence in Florence, under 
Cosmo de Medici, v/ho received the title of Grand Duke of 
Tuscany. The power of the Medici, which continued up- 
wards of a century, forms a brilliant era in literature and the 
liberal arts ; and the republic enjoyed a high degree of 
splendor during that period. Cosmo himself was a liberal 
patron of science, and employed his immense wealth in erect- 
ing works of taste and literary institutions. His dwelling 
at Florence exceeded in magnificence any palace in Europe ; 
yet he was plain and unassuming in his private character. 
Cosmo II., who succeeded to the head of the government 
in 1537, encouraged the fine arts, and is said to have been 
the most magnificent patron of genius since the days of 
Augustus. 

3. The subsequent history of Italy affords few events of 

Chapter IT. — 1. In 1311, what took place? What was the state of 
Italy at this period ? During the contest, wliere did the popes remove ? 
In 1377, what happened? To what did this give rise? — 2. What is 
said of the family of the Medici ? What does their power form ? What 
is said of Cosmo and his dwelling ? — 3. What is remarked of the subse- 
quent history of Italy ? 



360 ITALY. 

importance until the period of the French revolution. The 
Italian States shared largelj^ of the convulsions caused by 
the event. The French overran the Ecclesiastical States, 
took the city of Rome, and dragged the aged and venerable 
PiusYI. captive into France, where he died in 1799. The 
Kings of Naples and Sardinia were likewise driven from their 
dominions. In 1809, Napoleon solicited the Pope to close 
his harbors against British commerce, and become a party in 
the war against Russia. To these measures Pius VII. re- 
turned a positive refusal, saying that " being the father of 
all Christian nations, he could not, consistently with that 
character, become the enemy of any one." 

4. The haughty Emperor, highly incensed at this coura- 
geous reply, issued a decree at Vienna, declaring the Eccle- 
siastical States annexed to his empire. The venerable Pius 
VII. was immediately sent into captivity and exile, having 
previously pronounced the sentence of excommunication 
against Napoleon. The Pope remained in captivity for about 
five years, until after the first dethronement of the Emperor 
of France, in 1814, when he again returned to Rome. 

5. Waterloo sealed the doom of Napoleon. The Congress 
of Vienna reinstated the deposed rulers of the various Italian 
States. Austria, of course, had a large share ; * and the Pope 
got back his possessions. There was, however, much dis- 
satisfaction among certain classes of the people. A net-work 
of secret political societies f soon spread over the peninsula ; 
and the first fruits of such organizations were seen in the 
risings of 1820 and 1821 in Piedmont and Naples. 

6. Over a quarter of a century passed. It was almost 
wholly peaceful. Then came 1848 — the year of revolutions. 
The rising in Paris and the flight of King Louis Philippe 
were signals for similar outbreaks in almost every capital of 
Europe. 

t. The flame of insurrection swept over Rome and the 
north of Italy. In Milan and Venice the Austrian garrisons 
were driven out, and the standard of independence raised 
throughout the whole of Lombardy. This success inspired 

* Lombardy and Venice, known in history as the Lombard- Venetian 
kingdom. 

t Called Carbonari, or Charcoal-burners. 

What did the French overrun? Who were driven from their do- 
minions? What occurred in 1809? — 4. How did Napoleon treat the 
Pope ? How long did the Pope remain in captivity ? — 5. What is said 
of the Congress of Vienna ? Of secret societies? 6. What occurred in 
1848? — 7. Where did the flame of insurrection extend? 



ITALY. 361 

Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, with the hope of making 
himself master of the Lombard -Venetian kingdom, and he 
accordingly declared war against Austria. In this he was 
joined by numerous Italian volunteers, and for a brief period 
success attended his arms. The scale, however, was soon 
changed. In the summer of 1848, the Austrian Field-Mar- 
shal, Radetski, then in the eighty-sixth year of his age, sig- 
nally defeated him at Custozza. The King of Sardinia fled 
during the night into his own dominions, and a truce was 
concluded with the victors. Urged on by the popular leaders, 
and burning with the desire to obliterate the dishonor of the 
late defeat, Charles Albert again resolved to try the fortune 
of arms. Accordingly in the following spring, he again 
crossed the Austrian boundaries. He was met by Radetski 
at Vercelli, and signally defeated. He was again routed on 
the following day at Novara, with the loss of upwards of fif- 
teen thousand men. This ended the war. Radetski returned 
in triumph to Milan after an absence of only eleven days. 
Charles Albert, after the second defeat, hastily abdicated in 
favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, fled into Switzerland, and 
thence into Spain, where he shortly afterwards died. 

8. In the meantime Rome was the scene of the most fla- 
grant outrages and disorders. On the death of Gregory XVI., 
the choice of the conclave fell upon Cardinal Ferreti, who 
assumed the name of Pius IX. — a name destined to become 
so illustrious. The new Pontiff, from the very commence- 
ment of his reign, gave proofs of a liberal and enlightened 
policy, by granting to the people every reform consistent with 
their happiness and the well-being of the State. At first his 
generous acts were received with enthusiasm, and the name 
of Pius XI. was everywhere hailed with applause. Rome, 
however, had been for some time previously the centre of a 
secret political organization, which had for its ultimate object 
the destruction of both Church and State. The leaders of 
this body, at that time, were Mazzini, Storbini, and Galletti, 
men of talents and energy, but of the most unscrupulous and 
abandoned principles. They at first strongly urged the Pontiff 
to join in the war against Austria, and on his refusal to 

What did the king of Sardinia do ? In the summer of 1848, what 
battle was fought ? What was the result ? What battle was fought in 
the following spring? Where was Charles Albert again defeated? 
What became of him ? — 8. In the meantime what was the condition of 
Eome? Who succeeded Gregory XVI.? At first, how were his gener- 
ous acts hailed ? Who were the leaders of the secret societies ? At first, 
what did they urge ? 
31 



862 ITALY. 

comply with their request, they cunningly threw the blame 
on the Jesuits, and held them up to the people as the friends 
of Austria and the enemies to Italian independence. The 
"blacks," as they were termed, were everywhere denounced, 
and so great was the popular feeling, thus unjustly excited 
against them, that the worthy and learned followers of St. 
Ignatius could not with safety any longer appear in public, 
and were finally expelled from the Papal dominions. 

9. Encouraged by this success, they next directed their 
attacks against the Cardinals. It was the determination of 
the revolutionary leaders from the beginning to destroy this 
Order, and thereby remove from the Pope his most faithful 
counsellors. Under various pretences they assembled the 
people, and inflamed their minds against the Austrians with 
whom they pretended the Cardinals had entered into a league 
for the purpose of delivering Rome into their hands and crush- 
ing forever the hopes of Italian independence. At the same 
time they professed the utmost loyalty to the Pope, but falsely 
and maliciously represented the Cardinals as restraining his 
Holiness in his measures of reform, and of preventing him 
joining in the war against Austria, as they had formerly done 
in regard to the Jesuits. From this time forward the cry of 
" Death to the Cardinals!" was heard in every part of Rome. 

10. With the view of conciliating the popular leaders, the 
Pope, in the fall of 1848, appointed as his prime minister, 
Count Rossi, a statesman of liberal views, a friend of nation- 
ality, but a man of energy and determination. The Count 
entered on the duties of his office by the adoption of the 
most vigorous measures for the restoration of order, and for 
the suppression of the lawless proceedings which had for 
some time disgraced the Eternal City. Alarmed at his 
boldness, the conspirators resolved to remove him by assas- 
sination, which they did in the most brutal manner, on the 
steps of the Senate chamber. Immediately after the death 
of the faithful Rossi, and while the city was still in the ut- 
most excitement on account of the horrid deed, the conspira- 
tors formed themselves into a Committee of Public Safety, 
assumed the command of the military forces, and the control 
of the entire municipal authorities. They then drew up a 
new ministry, composed of the most violent members of 



Against whom did they excite the indignation of the people? — 9. 
Against whom did they next direct their attacks ? — 10. Who was ap- 
pointed prime minister? What was his fate? Immediately after this, 
what was done? 



ITALY. 363 

their own body, such as Mannani, Galletti, Sterbini, and 
others, and went in procession to the Quirinal, accompanied 
by an immense crowd of soldiers of every g:rade, and fol- 
lowed by a curious and drunken mob. His Holiness requested 
time to consider their demands, but they insisted on his im- 
mediate -assent. This being refused, they made a most furi- 
ous assault on the palace, set fire to the gates, and attempted 
to scale the walls. During the assault, Mons. Palma, Latin 
Secretary of the Pope, having exposed himself at one of 
the windows, was shot dead on the spot. 

11. For several days his Holiness was kept a close prisoner 
in his own palace. Finding himself, however, completely at 
the mercy of the conspirators, and learning that they were 
about to compel him to renounce all temporal power over the 
Roman States, and that his life was threatened if he refused, 
he determined, if possible, to escape from the city. Accord- 
ingly, with the assistance of the Bavarian and French am- 
bassadors, he effected his flight from Rome, on the 24th of 
November, 1848, and proceeded to Gaeta, in the kingdom of 
Naples, where he was cordially received by the King and the 
royal family. 

12. After the flight of Pius IX., the Papal government 
was abolished, and a republic proclaimed. In the meantime, 
the Pope was not idle. In the early part of January follow- 
ing his arrival at Gaeta, he published a solemn protest 
against the proceedings of the conspirators in Rome, and 
appealed to the great Catholic powers of Europe, respectfully 
asking their armed interposition in his behalf. His request 
was immediately responded to by several of the powers to 
whom the appeal was made. Among these, France took the 
lead. In the latter part of April, 1849, a French army, under 
the command of General Oudinot, landed in the Papal States, 
and marched directly for Rome. The first attack on the 
city was unsuccessful, and the French general was obliged 
to retire to Palo, a few miles from Rome, there to await the 
arrival of reinforcements. About the middle of June the 
attack was renewed, and continued with but little intermis- 
sion for nearly two weeks. The city was finally carried, and 
General Oudinot entered with his forces on the 2d of July. 
He immediately dispatched one of his officers to Gaeta, to 

Who was killed during the assault? — 11. For several days, how was 
the Pope kept ? By whose assistance did he escape, and where did he 
retire to ?— 12. What was done after the flight of his Holiness ? What 
did he publish, etc. ? In April, 1 849, what did the French do ? What 
is said of the first attack ? What was the final result ? 



864 ITALY. 

inform the sovereign Pontiff of the victory, and to place at 
his feet the keys of the city. 

13. The Pope remained at Gaeta until the following 
April, when he returned in triumph to his capital, and qui- 
etly resumed the exercise of his authority. The evils en- 
tailed on the country by the late convulsion were serious 
and manifold. Commerce had been interrupted, the mechan- 
ical branches of industry paralyzed, debts created, and the 
community flooded by a worthless paper currency, which 
had been issued by the republic. To remedy these evils was 
the first care of Pius IX. on being restored to his capital, 
and to this he applied himself with unremitting energy. By 
his prudent measures, public confidence was soon restored, and 
life and energy infused into every department of the gov- 
ernment. The loyal and good were more than ever endeared 
to the person of the Pontiff, while the hostility of his ene- 
mies was disarmed by his mildness and generosity. 

14. The magnanimity of the Holy Father did not, how- 
ever, stay the revolutionary attempts of the Italian agita- 
tors. The war against Austria, in 1859, by exciting the 
public mind, gave birth to a political organization having 
in view the unity of Italy, and Victor Emmanuel, King of 
Sardinia, was proclaimed the head of the united kingdom. 
States ejected their rulers to enter this new combination, 
thereby not gaining their independence, but simply a poor 
change of masters. The Papal territory was sadly dimin- 
ished by these unceremonious annexations. Bologna and 
the Romagna were absorbed, and in 1860 the duchies of 
Parma and Modena were united to the new and growing 
kingdom. 

15. The Pope having appealed, in vain, to the Catholic 
sovereigns of Europe, resolved to make an effort to resist 
these encroachments. He called upon the faithful to volun- 
teer in defence of the Holy See, and entrusted the organiza- 
tion of his army to General De Lamoriciere, a French offi- 
cer of the greatest merit, who had won imperishable fame 
in the African war. Volunteers flocked from every part of 
Europe, and Lamoriciere was busily engaged in their organ- 
ization and instruction, when, without any previous decla- 
ration of hostilities, the Sardinian General, Cialdini, at the 



13. When did the Pope return to his capital? What evils were en- 
tailed on the community by the late convulsion ? — 14. What happened 
in Italy in 1860? Was the Papal territory diminished ? How?— 15. 
What did the Pope ? What General took command of his army ? 



ITALY. 865 

head of sixty thousand, invaded the Papal territory, and 
attacked the volunteers at Castelfidardo. Lamoriciere's skill 
as a commander was unavailing to resist the attack. His 
raw recruits, poorly armed, and far inferior in number to 
the enemy, were cut down or taken prisoners, and the organ- 
ization of the Pontifical Volunteers destroyed at one fell 
blow. The gallant General, however, cut his way through 
th-e enemy, and threw himself into the city of Ancona. But 
this place, attacked and shelled by the, Sardinian fleet, was 
soon after compelled to capitulate. The fall of Ancona in- 
volved the loss to the Pontifical States of the Marches and 
Umbria. 

16. Meanwhile, the revolution was still progressing all 
over Italy. Garibaldi was overrunning the Two Sicilies 
and taking Naples, whilst Cialdini besieged and took Gaeta. 
The youthful King of the Two Sicilies, Francis II., bravely 
defended his possessions. He could be seen, in the batteries 
of Gaeta, accompanied by his young and amiable queen, 
animating the gunners by his example ; but he had to suc- 
cumb, and sought refuge in Rome. 

17. The intervention of Napoleon III., who sent troops 
to Kome, saved the Eternal City, for a time, from falling 
again into the hands of the revolutionists. Victor Emmanuel, 
however, was declared King of Italy. The seat of govern- 
ment was transferred to Florence, but the revolutionists 
were not satisfied. They wanted Rome. In 1864 a conven- 
tion was concluded at Paris between Napoleon and Victor 
Emmanuel. Italy bound herself not to attack the territory 
of the Holy Father — as it then stood — and, if necessary, to 
prevent by force attacks on it from any quarter. On the 
other hand, France agreed to withdraw her troops gradually, 
so that the evacuation of Rome would be completed in two 
years. Such was the contract. We shall soon see how it 
was broken by the faithless King of Italy. 

18. On December 8th, 1869, Pius IX. formally opened 
the General Council of the Vatican, and seven hundred and 
twenty-three Fathers were present. It was the most numer- 
ous and august ecclesiastical assembly which has met in modern 

What happened at Castelfidardo? Where did Lamorici^re go? What 
was the fate of Ancona? — 16. What about the movements of Garibaldi 
and Cialdini? Hoav did Francis II. behave? — 17. What saved Rome 
for a time from the revolutionists ? Who was declared king of Italy ? 
What did the revolutionists desire ? What was concluded at Paris in 
1864? How did Italy bind herself? What did France agree to do? — 
18. What is said of the Vatican Council ? 
31* 



B66 ITALY. 

times. Sessions were held until the following July, and the 
dogma of the Infallibility of the Pope in matters of faith and 
morals, when teaching ex cathedra, was defined and pro- 
claimed. 

19. The summer of 1870 brought about vast changes in 
the situation of Europe.* The last of the French garrison 
was withdrawn from Rome ; and soon Napoleon III. was a 
prisoner in the hands of the Prussians. It was a most 
tempting opportunity for the robber revolutionists of Italy. 
Nor was it neglected. They seized Rome, and snatched the 
last remnant of his temporal possessions from the venerable 
Pontifif. Victor Emmanuel himself entered the Eternal City 
in December, 1870, and made it the capital of united Italy. 
The reign of sacrilege began. Ecclesiastical property was 
confiscated. Convents, colleges, and monasteries were closed, 
and the pious inmates expelled in a brutal manner worthy 
of Henry YIII., of England. 

20. Yictor Emmanuel went to give an account to his 
Almighty Creator in January, 18T8. He was succeeded by 
his son. Prince Humbert. Less than a month passed, and 
the illustrious Pius IX. — who had outlived " the years of 
Peter " — died; and the election of his present Holiness, Leo 
XIII., speedily followed. In Italy, as we see it to-day, 
lawless might has overcome right, but not forever. 

* See France and Prussia. 

19. What is remarked of the summer of 1870? Of the French garri- 
son of Kome and Napoleon ? What did the Italian revolutionists do ? 
When did Victor Emmanuel enter Rome ? What began ?— 20. When 
did Victor Emmanuel die? Who succeeded? When did Pius IX. 
die ? Who was elected ? 



BOOK XIL 
GERMANY AND AUSTRIA, 



CHAPTER I. 



FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE ACCESSION OF THE 
HOUSE OF HAPSBURG, A. D. 1264. 

OUR knowledge of the primitive inhabitants of Germany, 
who were most probably of Celtic origin, is very limited, 
until the period of the Roman conquests in that country. 
At the time when Julius Caesar invaded the country, Ger- 
many seems to have been divided into a number of indepen- 
dent principalities ; but the inhabitants frequently united for 
their mutual defence, and the many bloody battles they 
fought before they sunk under the power of the invaders, 
established their reputation for bravery. On the decline of 
the Western Empire of the Romans, Germany fell under the 
dominion of the Franks, and remained in their possession 
until Charlemagne extended his power over the whole 
country. 

2. In the year 843, the Empire of the West was divided 
into three monarchies, France, Germany, and Italy ; and 
about the year 887 the imperial dignity was transferred 
entirely to Germany, which, in the history of Europe, is 
called, by way of distinction, the Empire, and the subjects, 
the Impermlists. After the death of Louis III., in 912, the 
imperial crown became strictly elective, although, during 
the hereditary succession, the consent of the bishops and 
nobility had always been asked. Conrad was the first elected 
to the vacant throne, and, after a reign of seven years. 

Chapter I. — 1. What is our knowledge of the primitive inhabitants 
of Germany ? In the time of Julius Caesar, how were they divided ? 
On the decline of the Western Empire, what was the fate of the Ger- 
mans?— 2. In 843, what took place? And in 887 ? And in 912? 

367 



368 GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. 

Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, was raised to the imperial 
dignity. Henry possessed great abilities, and introduced 
good order into his dominions. He built and embellished 
several cities, reduced and conciliated many of the revolted 
lords, subdued the Hungarians, Danes, Bohemians, and 
others, and added Lorraine to his empire. 

3. His son, Otho I., was elected emperor in 936. He 
possessed all the abilities of his father, and pursued a similar 
system of policy. In 961, he invaded Italy, at the solicita- 
tion of the Italian States, during their contest with Berenger. 
Otho defeated Berenger and Adalbert, caused himself to be 
crowned at Milan as Emperor of the Romans. He died in 
972, after an active reign of thirty years. Otho II. suc- 
ceeded his father in 973, during whose reign nothing of 
importance occurred. The reigns of his successors, Otho III., 
Henry II., Conrad II., and Henry III., are marked by few 
striking events. Towards the close of the reign of Henry 
II., usually called St. Henry, the pious monarch wished to 
renounce all earthly grandeur, and applied to Richard, Abbot 
of St. Viennes, in Lorraine, for admission into the monas- 
tery. The Abbot received him, but immediately commanded 
him, in virtue of a vow of obedience, to reassume the gov- 
ernment of the empire, for the honor of God and the good 
of the people, to which the monarch humbly, though reluc- 
tantly, submitted. 

4. Henry lY., surnamed the Great, succeeded to the throne 
in 1056, at the early age of six years. His reign is chiefly 
distinguished by his contests with the Popes, the particulars 
of which may be seen in the history of Italy. The latter 
part of his life was imbittered by the unnatural rebellion of 
his own son, wh^o openly revolted, and obliged his father, 
Henry, to abdicate the crown. The dethroned monarch was 
removed to Liege, where he shortly after died, a prey to ex- 
cessive grief, A. D. 1106, after a reign of fifty years, during 
which he had been present in sixty-two battles, in most of 
which he was victorious. His exploits, his bravery, and 
talents have ranked him among the greatest sovereigns of 
Germany. 

5. Nothing of importance occurred in the history of Ger- 
many during the reigns of several succeeding Emperors. The 



What is said of Henry I. ? — 3. Who was next elected ? In 961, what 
did he do ? When did he die ? Who succeeded ? What is related of 
Henry II.? — 4. Who succeeded in 1056 ? For what is his reign distin- 
guished? What was the latter part of his life? When did he die? 



GERMANY AND AUSTllIA. 369 

reign of Frederick I., surnamed Barbaras' sa, on account of 
his red beard, was chiefly signalized by an expedition to the 
Holy Land, during which he was drowned in the riv^cr Cyd- 
nus, in Cilicia. After the reign of Conrad lY., a period of 
near twenty years of contention and confusion followed, called 
the Great Interregnum. The disorder was terminated by 
the election of Rodolphus, Count of Hapsburg, in Switzer- 
land, to the imperial throne, a. d. 1264. The new Emperor 
found the country in a state of anarchy and confusion, but 
by his wise and prudent measures, he succeeded in restoring 
order. His reign was distinguished by many acts of virtue 
and justice. He left one son, from whom the present house 
of Austria is descended, and who afterwards succeeded to the 
throne, under the title of Albert I., in 1298. 



CHAPTER II. 

A GLANCE AT THE HISTORY OF SIX HUNDRED YEARS. 

IT was during the reign of Albert I. that the Swiss re- 
volted. At first only a few of the cantons combined to 
assert their freedom, and a small army of thirteen hundred 
Swiss defeated an immense host of Austrians, in the pass of 
Morgarten, in 1315. The rest of the cantons by degrees 
joined the revolt, and with invincible perseverance, after 
sixty sanguinary battles with their enemies, they effected 
their independence. This event was chiefly eff'ected by the 
patriotism of the famous William Tell, who was instrumen- 
tal in producing this revolution, and in laying the foundation 
of his country's freedom. Thus did Switzerland become a 
nation. 

2. The reigns of the eight succeeding Emperors present 
few events of importance. The reign of Henry YII., how- 
ever, was memorable for the miseries under which Germany 
groaned during that period. A raging pestilence and famine 
depopulated the towns and desolated the provinces. The 

5. For what was the reign of Frederick I. signalized ? What hap- 
pened after the reign of Conrad IV. ? How was the disorder termin- 
ated ? What is said of the new emperor ? What did he leave ? 

Chapter II. — 1. What took place in the reign of the prince? Where 
was the Austrian army defeated ? By whom was this event effected ? 
— 2. For what is the reign of Henry VII. memorable? 

Y 



370 GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. 

rich sought an asylum in other countries, while the poor 
perished for the want of assistance. Wolves and other beasts 
of prey, impelled by hunger, quitted the forest, and, rushing 
into the towns, devoured the famished inhabitants. Cataracts 
of water, bursting from the mountains, swept trees and houses 
before them with violent impetuosity, and the earth was con- 
vulsed by frequent shocks, which seemed to agitate it to the 
very centre. 

3. Frederick III. succeeded to the throne in 1440. His 
family became the most powerful in Germany, by the mar- 
riage of his son with Mary, the heiress of Burgundy and the 
Netherlands. He was succeeded by his son Maximilian I., 
a prince possessed of considerable abilities. He established 
peace among the German states, and freed the country from 
the disorders occasioned by the Feudal System. Maximilian 
was succeeded, in 1519, by his grandson, Charles Y., the 
most powerful sovereign of his age. His long reign, which 
continued for nearly forty years, was almost one series of 
warfare, chiefly with his great rival, Francis I., of France. 
During this contest, in 1527, Charles took Rome, which, for 
nine months, was given up to plunder. A few years after 
this event, he took the city of Tunis, and liberated twenty- 
two thousand Christian slaves. Some time before his death, 
he resigned the crown of Spain to his son, Philip II., and 
leaving the throne of Germany to his' brother Ferdinand, he 
retired to the monastery of ;S^. Justin, in Spain ; and here, 
in this peaceful retreat, the greatest monarch of the age ended 
his days. The Protestant Reformation, which began to make 
considerable progress in Germany, is one of the most remark- 
able events in the history of that empire. It was commenced 
by Mar-tin Luther, an Augustinian Father, who was then pro- 
fessor of theology at Wittenberg, about the year 1517. * 

4. The reigns of the successors of Ferdinand, Maximilian 
II. and Bodolphus II., were generally peaceful and prosper- 
ous. The reigns of Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. were 
signalized by the Thirty Years'* War, which commenced in 
the year 1618, and was terminated by the peace of West- 
phalia, in 1648. This celebrated war had its origin in the 

* For details, see The Church, Chap. HI. 

What is said of the rich ? Of wolves ? Of cataracts of water ? — 3. 
Who succeeded to the throne? By whom was Maximihan succeeded? 
What is said of his reign ? What cities did he take ? Before his death, 
what did he do ? AVhat is one of the most remarkable events in the 
history of this empire ? — 4, By what were the reigns of Ferdinand the 
fii-st and second signalized ? In what had this war its origin ? 



GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. 371 

deplorable religious dissensions of the sixteenth century. On 
the one side was the Protestant confederacy, styled the Evan- 
gelical Union, and on the other the Catholic League. The 
final result of the contest was the equal establishment of the 
Protestant and Catholic religions. 

5. By the death of Charles VI., in 1Y40, the male line 
of the house of Hapsburg became extinct; and his eldest 
daughter, the celebrated Maria Teresa, succeeded to his 
dominions. Her title, however, was disputed by Charles, 
the Elector of Bavaria. This circumstance gave rise to the 
contest styled the war of the Austrian Succession, which 
was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1Y48, 
when the claim of Maria Teresa was acknowledged, and 
her husband, Francis of Lorraine, was invested with the 
imperial dignity. The Empress was distinguished for her 
heroism, eminent talents, and affability. She built various 
hospitals and encouraged commerce and science. 

6. Maria Teresa was succeeded by her son, Joseph II., in 
the year It 65. The reign of this monarch was signalized 
by his war with the Turks, during which he died, and was 
succeeded by his brother, Leopold II., who, after a short 
reign of two years, left the throne to Francis II. Germany, 
during the French Revolution, became the theatre of most 
of the wars carried on at that period. In 1804, Francis 
caused himself to be proclaimed hereditary Emperor of 
Austria, and, two years subsequently to this event, he was 
compelled by Napoleon, the Emperor of France, to resign the 
title of Emperor of Germany, and absolve the German States 
from their allegiance. Thus ended the German Empire, 
after it had continued from the commencement of the West- 
ern Empire, under Charlemagne, a period of one thousand 
and six years. On the return of Napoleon from Elba, 
Austria joined the fifth coalition against him, and, after the 
second dethronement of the French Emperor, a new union 
was formed by the German States, called the Ger^maiiic 
Confederation. It was subsequently signed at Vienna, and 
the several States were reinstated by Austria in nearly their 
former possessions. 

What was on the one side? On the other?— 5. What celebrated 
woman succeeded ? Who disputed her title ? What war was the conse- 
quence, and how did it end ? For what was Maria Teresa distin- 
guished? — 6. What is said of Joseph II. and his reign? What did 
Francis II, do in 1804? What did Napoleon force him to do ? What 
did this end ? Did Austria join the fifth coalition ? What confedera- 
tion was formed ? 



372 GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. 

T. For the next fifty years, Austria exerted a powerful 
influence in the affairs of Europe, and more especially in the 
German Confederation. The Emperor, Francis II., meant 
well to his subjects, but as he grew older he became more 
and more despotic. Nor did his death, in 1832, make much 
alteration in the policy of the Austrian government. Ferdi- 
nand I. trod in his father's footsteps. Discontent increased 
in Hungary, Bohemia, and other provinces. 

8. At length the revolutionary movement of 1848 came, 
and Europe was shaken to its foundations. The citizens of 
Vienna rose, and the Emperor and his court fled to Inns- 
bruck. Insurrections broke out in Hungary, Bohemia, and 
the Italian provinces. Confusion prevailed everywhere. 
The clash of arms sounded in all quarters. After a siege, 
Vienna was retaken. Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his 
young nephew, Francis Joseph, who was declared Emperor 
in December, 1848. The rebellion in Bohemia and Northern 
Italy was suppressed ; and, by the aid of a Russian army, 
Hungary was crushed in her aspirations for freedom. 

9. We have already referred to the quarrel between Victor 
Emmanuel and the Emperor of Austria in 1859.* Napoleon 
III. hastened to the aid of his ally, the King of Sardinia, 
and the Austrians were severely punished in the brilliant 
battles of Magenta and Solferino. The peace of Villa- 
franca ended the conflict, and the Emperor Francis Joseph 
ceded Lombardy to Sardinia. 

10. The disagreement with Prussia led to the disastrous 
campaign of 1866. Austria was vanquished at Sadowa, 
lost all her Italian possessions, and fell from the pre-eminent 
position which she had long held in the German Confedera- 
tion, f After this visitation of misfortune, however, Austria 
began a new and purer political life. It was a happy trans- 
formation. In 1867, Hungary obtained her long-cherished 
desire — a legislature of her own, chosen by the almost uni- 
versal suffrage of the people. At Pesth the Emperor and 
Empress were crowned King and Queen of Hungary ; and 
to-day Francis Joseph is the most popular sovereign in 
Europe. 

* See France. f See Prussia. 

7. For the next fifty years, what did Austria do ? What is said of 
Francis II. ? When did he die ? Who succeeded, and what is said of 
his policy?— 8. What happened in 1848?— 9. What happened in 1859? 
-—10. What happened in 1866 ? What occurred after this visitation of 
misfortune ? What did Hungary obtain in 1867 ? Who were crowned 
at Pesth ? 



BOOK XIII. 
PRUSSIA. 



CHAPTER I. 



EARLY HISTORY TO THE CONCLUSION OF THE REIGN OF 
FREDERICK THE GREAT.— A. D. 1694 TO 1786. 

LITTLE is known of the early history of this country. 
It was inhabited by a rude and barbarous race called 
the Borussi, and denominated Brussia or Porussia, from 
which the present name is derived. In 1594, Prussia and 
Brandenburg were united into one government by a matri- 
monial alliance between John Sigismond, Elector of Branden- 
burg, and Anne, the daughter of Albert, Duke of Prussia. 
On the death of Sigismond, in 1619, his son, the Elector, 
George William, succeeded to the government. During his 
administration, the electorate suffered the severest calamities, 
occasioned by the Thirty Years^ War, which grew out of 
the religious controversies which at that time distracted the 
continent of Europe. 

2. On the death of George, in 1640, his son, Frederick 
William, succeeded to his dominions. By a wise and well- 
regulated policy, he succeeded in removing the disorders 
into which the country had fallen, in consequence of the 
wars that continued to rage during the reign of his father, 
and at his death he left the electorate in a prosperous condi- 
tion. He was succeeded by Frederick L, who assumed the 
title of King in 1701 ; as previous to this the country was 
styled the Electorate of Brandenburg, and the ruler the 
Elector. 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the history of Prussia, and by whom 
was it inhabited? In 1594, what took place? Who succeeded Sigis- 
mond in 1619? — 2. By whom was George succeeded? What did he 
succeed in removing? By whom was he succeeded, and what did he 
assume ? 

32 373 



874 PRUSSIA. 

Frederick was remarkable for his frugal halDits and strict 
economy. He even denied himself the ordinary comforts of 
life. In his manners, however, he was rude and harsh, and 
treated his children with a degree of severity bordering on 
brutality. 

3. Frederick II., styled the Great, who succeeded to the 
throne in 1740, is regarded as one of the greatest warriors 
of modern times. Shortly after his accession, he revived his 
claim to the Duchy of Silesia, invaded the country, and 
defeated the Austrians in the great battle of Molwitz. After 
the conquest of Silesia, he turned his victorious arms against 
Saxony. Having alarmed all Europe by the rapidity of his 
conquests, a defensive alliance was formed against him by 
France. Russia, and Austria. A great and sanguinary con- 
test followed, called the Seven Years^ War, during which 
Frederick maintained his ground against his powerful 
enemies, until peace was restored by the treaty of Huberts- 
berg. 

4. Frederick was remarkable for the severe discipline 
which he maintained in his army. On one occasion, while 
in sight of the enemy, he gave orders that all the lights in 
the camp should be put out at a certain hour, under the 
penalty of death. It happened, as he went round the camp 
to see if his order was obeyed, that he perceived the glimmer- 
ing of a light proceeding from the tent of one of his officers. 
As the King entered the tent, the officer, who was in the act 
of folding a letter, immediately arose and threw himself at 
the feet of Frederick, and implored his forgiveness for hav- 
ing disobeyed his order, stating, at the same time, that he 
had been writing a few lines to his wife, and on that account 
had retained the light for a few moments over the time 
appointed for extinguishing it. With a stern countenance, 
the King ordered him to add a few words more to the letter 
he had just concluded, and to inform his wife that he would 
be shot on the following day. This .rigorous sentence was 
accordingly executed. 

5. In the latter part of his reign, Frederick applied him- 
self to the internal improvement of his kingdom. He built 
several towns, and gave encouragement to agriculture, 
manufactures, and commerce. He was fond of literature. 

What is said of Frederick ?— 3. What is said of Frederick II. ? On 
his accession, what did he do ? What was formed against him? What 
ensued ? — 4. For what was Frederick remarkable ? On one occasion, 
what ordei*s did he give? Relate what followed, — 5. In the latter part 
of his reign, to what did he apply himself? 



PRUSSIA. 876 

and possessed some merits as an author. In religion, he 
was a skeptic, and made Voltaire an intimate companion. 
The part he acted in the dismemberment of Poland has 
proved him destitute of every principle of justice or human- 
ity. He died, in 1786, at the advanced age of seventy-four 
years. 



CHAPTER II. 



FROM THE DEATH OF FREDERICK THE GREAT TILL THE 
PRESENT TIME.— A. D. 1786 TO 1880. 

FREDERICK the Great was succeeded by his nephew, 
Frederick William II., a prince more addicted to pleas- 
ure than to the affairs of government. After a short and 
unimportant reign, he was succeeded by his son, Frederick 
William III., in 1797. Frederick suffered a memorable 
defeat in his contest with the French, under Napoleon, at 
the battle of Jena ; and at the peace of Tilsit he was deprived 
of nearly half of his dominions. In 1812, the Prussian mon- 
arch joined the coalition against France, and his army, under 
Blucher, at the famous battle of Waterloo, turned the fortune 
of the day against the Emperor Napoleon. By the treaty of 
Yienna, he gained a considerable accession of territory. 

2. In the ten years which succeeded the battle of Water- 
loo, Prussia underwent a complete reorganization. Trade 
received a new impulse through the various commercial 
treaties made with the maritime nations of the world. Pub- 
lic roads and railroads were multiplied, and ample provision 
was made for the diffusion of education. But there was a 
marked tendency to over-legislation, which has long been the 
predominating evil feature of Prussian administration. 

3. The accession of Frederick William TV., in 1840, 
seemed to open a better prospect for the cause of constitu- 
tional freedom. When the rumble of revolution was heard, 

What was he in religion, and who was his companion? What is said 
of his character ? When did he die ? 

Chapter II. — 1. Who succeeded Frederick the Great? What is re- 
marked of the reign of Frederick William II., and by whom was he 
succeeded? What defeat did he suffer? In 1812, what did the Prus- 
sian monarch do? — 2. What occurred after the battle of Waterloo? 
W^hat is said of trade? Koads? Education? Over-legislation? — 3. 
What is said of William IV. and his reign? 



376 PRUSSIA. 

eight years later, the King made lavish promises, which he 
took little care to perform. A new constitution was adopted, 
which, however, was so modified, year after year, that it 
soon retained but few of its original enactments. 

4. Frederick William was succeeded by his brother, Wil- 
liam I., in 1861 ; and it was now that the bold, unscrupu- 
lous genius of Bismarch began to be felt in the afifairs of 
the kingdom and the councils of Europe. 

5. In 1863, a quarrel arose between Christian IX., King 
of Denmark, and the Duke of Augustenburg, about the right 
of succession to the duchies of Holstein and Schleswig, 
which both claimed. The German Diet, supporting the Duke 
of Augustenburg's claim, sent troops to Holstein, whilst 
Prussia and Austria, ostensibly for the same object, occupied 
Schleswig, and, taking the offensive, invaded Jutland. Den- 
mark fighting alone against such odds was soon overpowered, 
and compelled to cede not only Schleswig and Holstein, but 
also the duchy of Lauenburg. 

6. Prussia had obtained Lauenburg for her share of the 
spoils, but, far from being satisfied, she claimed the two other 
duchies. Austria refused to submit to such pretensions, and 
Prussia, withdrawing at once from the German Confedera- 
tion, declared war against her former ally, whose territory 
she now invaded. She had secured, by a secret treaty, the 
assistance of Italy, who rejoiced at an opportunity of driving 
the Austrians from Yenetia. 

7. The Italian army of invasion was not fortunate. The 
Archduke Albert gave battle to the Italians, near Custozza, 
on the 24th of June (1866), and defeated them completely, 
compelling them to recross the Mincio. Their fleet fared 
still worse ; on the 20th of July, the Italian Admiral, Per- 
sano, with twenty-three vessels, engaged the inferior fleet of 
Admiral Tegetoff. Persano lost several vessels and was 
compelled to run into the port of Ancona for shelter. 

8. Meanwhile, the Prussians were operating with much 
better fortune than their ally. In the month of June, they 
entered Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Saxony ; and soon oc- 
cupied Frankfort and overran Darmstadt and Bavaria. The 
Austrian commander-in-chief was compelled to give battle 
to the formidable army, which, advancing in two columns, 
through Saxony and Silesia, made a junction at Gitschin. 

4. Who succeeded to the throne in 1861, and what is said of Bis- 
marck ? — 5. What was the cause of the war in Schleswig-Holstein? 
Tlie result?— 6. How did Prussia act? — 7. What is said of the Italian 
army ? Navy ? — 8. How did the Prussians succeed ? 



PRUSSIA. 377 

The Austrians were inferior in number, and demoralized by 
the non-arrival of eighty thousand Bavarians, upon whom 
they had counted. The battle of Sadowa resulted in the 
total defeat and rout of the Austrian army. The carnage 
was fearful. The famous needle-gun was used, for the first 
time, in this battle, by the Prussians. 

9. Austria was vanquished. To save the national honor, 
and get rid of at least one of her adversaries, she ceded 
Yenetia to France, with the secret understanding that this 
province should be turned over to Italy. The French Em- 
peror renewed his offers of mediation, and a treaty of peace 
was agreed upon on the 26th of July, which was subse- 
quently ratified at Prague. 

10. Austria lost much more than she had contended for. 
She confirmed the cession of Yenetia, now a part of Italy ; 
renounced taking any part in the new Confederation which 
Prussia proposed to form north of the Main River ; and she 
formally renounced all claims upon the duchies of Holstein 
and Schleswig. She had, moreover, to submit to the annex- 
ation of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort to Prussia. 

11. Thus ended this wicked and bloody conflict. Prussia 
had humbled Austria, absorbed several of the smaller neigh- 
boring States, and reigned without a rival in Germany. The 
Emperor of France viewed the rapid rise of Prussia with a 
jealous eye ; and Bismarck carefully prepared his plans for 
the humiliation of Napoleon III. A few years rolled by, 
and France lay prostrate, bleeding, and conquered.* Again 
Prussia had triumphed, and become the first military power 
in Europe. The German Empire was reconstructed, and King 
Williamof Prussia was declared Emperor of Germany in 1871. 

12. The government is most despotic. There is neither 
political nor religious freedom. Recently the Catholic Church 
in Germany has suffered a fierce and most unjust persecu- 
tion. The country is one vast camp, and all Prussians are 
trained to military service. The most fruitful and promising 
years of the young men are wasted, and a false direction 
given to the ..national mind by the undue prominence as- 
signed to that lowest form of power — military force. 

* See France. 

What great battle was fought? — 9. What is said of Austria? — 10. 
What did Austria lose? — 11. What is remarked of the progress of 
Prussia ? Of the Emperor of France and Bismarck ? What soon hap- 
pened to France? Prussia became what? When was the German 
Empire reconstruct^nl ? — What is said of the government and present 
state of Germany ? 
32* 



BOOK XIY. 

RUSSIA. 



CHAPTER I. 

EARLY HISTORY. 

THE early history of Russia, which is greatly involved in 
obscurity, is marked by few events of importance. In 
the fifteenth century, John Basilowitz recovered the country 
from the dominion of the Tartars, and united a great part 
of it into one monarchy. But civilization made little prog- 
ress in Russia until the reign of Peter the Great, who, at 
the age of seventeen, ascended the throne in 1689, and as- 
sumed the title of Emperor. To this illustrious monarch 
Russia is indebted for all her present greatness. His youth 
was spent in dissipation, and his education was much neg- 
lected; but on ascending the throne, he displayed talents 
and abilities which have ranked him among the greatest of 
the sovereigns of Europe. 

2. Peter's first military expedition was against the Turks, 
whom he signally defeated, and returning to Moscow, after 
the capture of Azof, he caused the first medals to be struck 
that were ever seen in Russia. In order to improve and 
polish the manners of his court, he sent a number of his 
young nobility to travel, and to acquire a knowledge of for- 
eign countries. After this he resolved to go himself and 
visit the various states of Europe, in order to profit by his 
own personal experience and observations. In the capacity 
of a private, in the attendance of one of the nobles of his 
court, he travelled through Germany to Holland. At Am- 

Chapter I. — 1. What is said of the early history? In the fifteenth 
century ? What is said of civilization ? How was Peter the Great's 
youth spent ? — 2. What was his first military expedition ? To improve 
the manners of his court, what did he do ? After this, what did he 
resolve ? How did he travel ? 

378 



RUSSIA. 879 

sterdam he engaged himself as a workman in the dock-yard, 
under the name of Peter Michaeloff. From Holland he 
passed into England, where he was similarly emplo3^ed, and 
where he gained still higher improvement. At the end of 
sixteen months, he returned to his own dominions, carrying 
with him the fruit of his experience, which he successfully 
employed for the benefit of his subjects. 

3. In 1711, Peter married Catharine, a young and beau- 
tiful girl, the daughter of a peasant of Ringen, a small vil- 
lage in Livonia. At this period, Charles XII., King of 
Sweden, the most renowned warrior of his age, who had as- 
tonished all Europe by the brilliancy of his conquests, in- 
vaded Russia, at the head of a powerful army. Without 
the loss of time, Peter hastened to oppose his progress. 
They met in the famous battle of FuUowa, in which the 
Swedish monarch was signally defeated, with the loss of 
nine thousand of his army killed and fourteen thousand 
taken prisoners. The other principal events of his reign 
were the destruction of the Sterlityes, a body of troops re- 
sembling the Turkish Janizaries ; the building of the city 
of St. Petersburg, and the institution of a numerous and 
powerful army. He died at the age of fifty-three, in 1725 
— not without some suspicions of being poisoned by the Em- 
press. 

4. As a sovereign, Peter was unquestionably great ; but as 
a man, he possessed many qualities that degraded his private 
character. He is said to have been cruel, passionate, and 
given to intemperance. 

The Empress, having ascended the throne under the title 
of Catharine I,, was succeeded, after a prosperous reign of 
two years, by Peter II., grandson of Peter I. After a short 
and peaceful reign, he left the throne to his niece, Anne, 
Duchess of Courland. The term of her rule was prosperous, 
and added to the strength of the empire. Her generals gained 
a number of important victories over the Turks, and con- 
quered several towns in Crim Tartary. On her death, John, 
an infant only a few months old, succeeded to the throne ; 
but, by a sudden revolution, the young prince was deposed. 

Where was he employed ? When did he return to his own domin- 
ions? — 3. Whom did Peter marry? What is said of Charles XII.? 
Where did they meet? What were the other principal events of his 
reign ? When did he die? — 4. What is said of Peter? By whom was 
the empress succeeded ? To whom did he leave the throne ? What 
was her reign ? To whom did she leave tlie throne ? What revolution 
took place? 



380 RUSSIA. 

and Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, was proclaimed 
Empress. 

5. Elizabeth's reign was more brilliant than any of her 
predecessors, with the exception of her father. She was a 
princess possessed of eminent abilities and political talents. 
Her army was completely victorious over the Swedes, and 
her alliance was courted by Great Britain. 

She was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., a weak and 
indolent prince. He had married Catharine, a German prin- 
cess, who having discovered that it was his intention to con- 
fine her for life, and to marry a lady of his court, entered into 
a conspiracy with her favorite. Count Orloff, against her hus- 
band, who was accordingly deposed, and afterwards assas- 
sinated. 

6. Catharine was immediately proclaimed Empress, under 
the title of Catharine II. Her reign was the most magnificent 
in the history of Russia. She introduced elegance and refine- 
ment into her empire ; encouraged the arts and manufactures ; 
and enlarged her dominions by extending her conquests over 
Poland, Crimea, and other territories. As an Empress, she 
possessed extraordinary talents for government ; but her total 
disregard for justice, in her conduct towards defenceless Po- 
land, has stamped an indelible stain upon her public character, 
while her private life was a disgrace to her sex. She was 
succeeded by her son Paul, whose short and tyrannical reign 
was terminated by assassination, A. d. 1801. 



CHAPTER II. 

RUSSIA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 

ALEXANDER I., the late Emperor's eldest son, who now 
succeeded to the throne, was a wise and popular sove- 
reign. During his reign, the power of Russia was extended, 
and public improvement promoted. Alexander, alarmed at 
the progress of Napoleon, joined with Austria against him. 

5. What is said of her reign ? By whom was she succeeded ? Whom 
did he marry? What is related of her? — 6. What was Catharine pro- 
claimed ? What did she do ? What did she possess ? By whom was 
she succeeded ? 

Chaptee II, — 1. What is said of Alexander I. ? Whom did he join 
against Napoleon ? 



RUSSIA. • 881 

But after many sanguinary battles, the Russian monarch was 
compelled to sign the peace of Tilsit. In 1812, upon the 
refusal of Alexander to concur in the scheme of the Emperor 
of France, for excluding the British commerce from the con- 
tinent of Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia at the head of a 
powerful army. At Borodino, near Moscow, one of the most 
terrible battles recorded in history was fought. When the 
French Emperor made his disastrous retreat from Moscow, 
Alexander pursued the enemy beyond the limits of his empire, 
and entered Paris with the other allied sovereigns, where 
Napoleon was dethroned. 

2. Alexander died in 1825, and was succeeded by his brother 
Nicholas I., whose reign was marked by tyranny, brutality, 
and restless ambition. A full stop was now put to the rapid 
advance of the empire's real prosperity. Wars were de- 
clared with Persia and Turkey, and a long and deadly 
struggle commenced with the Caucasian mountaineers — all 
for the ill-concealed object of extending the power of Russia. 
Success in all these quarters only whetted the Emperor's 
appetite for more spoil. In 1830, he converted unfortunate 
Poland into a Russian province ; in 1849, he aided Austria 
in quelling the insurrection in Hungary; and in 1853 his 
irresistible craving for more territory plunged him into the 
Crimean war, in which France and England punished him 
pretty severely, and put an end to his lawless ambition. Be- 
fore the end of the conflict, Nicholas died, and Russia suifered 
immense loss of military prestige, and was almost drained 
of her vast resources of men and money. 

3. On the accession of Alexander II., in 1855, one of his 
first acts was the conclusion of the peace of Paris, by which 
Russia lost the right of navigation on the Danube, a strip of 
territory to the north of that river, and the unrestricted navi- 
gation of the Black Sea. His reign, however, has been one 
of considerable progress. Alexander's first great reform was 
the abolition of serfdom. In 1861, imperial decrees were 
published which conferred freedom upon forty-eight millions 
of Russian peasants.* The insurrection in Poland, 1863-4, 

^ The Russian word which we translate serf carries merely the idea 

With what result ? What took place in 181 2 ? What occurred at Boro- 
dino? When Napoleon retreated, what did Alexander do?— 2. When 
did Alexander die, and who succeeded him ? What marked the reign 
of Nicholas ? Against whom did he declare war, and with what success ? 
What occurred in 1830? 1849? 1853? What took place before the 
end of the conflict ? — 3. Who succeeded Nicholas ? What was one of his 
first acts ? His first great reform, and when ? What occurred in 1 863-4 ? 



382 RUSSIA. 

was suppressed with true Russian brutality. Four years later 
Poland was incorporated with Russia, and rigorous measures 
were instituted to suppress the Polish language. In 1867, 
Russia sold her North American territory to the United States 
for $7,000,000. A diplomatic note was addressed to the Euro- 
pean powers in 1870, protesting against those articles of the 
Treaty of Paris which neutralized the Black Sea. A conference 
of the powers in 1871 partially acceded to the claims of Russia. 
The atrocities exercised in Bulgaria called the attention of 
Europe to the appalling barbarity of Turkish misrule. The 
Emperor Alexander decided that such a disgraceful state of 
affairs must terminate, and in 1877 Russia declared war 
against Turkey, and moved her forces to the frontier. The 
flower of the Turkish army perished at Plevna, and in less 
than a year the vanquished Turks begged for peace, and the 
victorious Russians granted it. 

4. Russia is an absolute monarchy. All power — legislative, 
executive, judicial, and ecclesiastical — centres in the Emperor. 
His will is the law of Russia. He appoints and dismisses all 
the officers by whom his wishes are executed, and is respon- 
sible to no one for his actions. Thus eighty-five millions of 
people have surrendered to a single family all control over 
the management of their vast national interests. Russia has 
nine universities and a public school system ; but the great 
majority of the people never see the inside of a school. Nihil- 
ists, communists, and other revolutionary organizations flour- 
ish secretly in the cities in spite of severe laws, and several 
attempts have recently been made on the life of the Emperor. 
Alexander II. gives laws to the most gigantic empire in the 
world, covering one-seventh of the earth's surface, but he 
lives in daily fear of assassination. His people are neither 
free nor happy. 

of being fixed to one locality. Their Tartar instincts impelled the peas- 
ants to roam about, to the ruinous neglect of agriculture. They were 
originally made serfs — at the close of the sixteenth century — for no worse 
purpose than that of restraining this wasteful indulgence, and obliging 
them to stay at home and till their fields. Even now the emancipated 
Russian peasant may not go from home without the permission of the 
chief whom the villagers elect. — Mackenzie. 

Four years later? What was sold in 1867 ? What is said of a diplo- 
matic note of 1870? Against what nation did Russia declare war in 
1877? What was the result?— 4. What is said of the form of govern- 
ment? Education? Nihilists, communists? Alexander II. and his 
people? 



BOOK XV. 

Portugal, Poland, Sweden and Norway, 
Denmark, Sv^itzerland, Holland, Bel- 
gium, Modern Grreece, Turkey. 



CHAPTER I. 

PORTUGAL. 



THE history of Portugal, the most easterly kingdom of 
Europe, is closely united with that of Spain. It shared 
in all the vicissitudes of that nation, being successively over- 
run by the Romans, Goths, and Moors. About the year 
1094, Alphonso, King of Castile, bestowed that part of Por- 
tugal which he possessed, with his daughter, in marriage, on 
Henry, Duke of Burgundy, who had rendered him impor- 
tant services during his contest with the Moors. Henry was 
succeeded by his son, Alphonso, who defeated the Moors in 
a great battle at Orique, threw off the Castilian yoke, and as- 
sumed the title of King, a. d. 1139. 

2. The reign of John I. is distinguished by his victories 
over the Castilians and Moors, but more particularly for the 
progress the Portugese made in navigation. During the 
reign of John II., 5ar^/ioZomew Dmz discovered the Cape of 
Good Hope; and in a few years after this event, Vascode Gaima 
doubled that Cape, and was the first navigator that accom- 
plished a voyage to the Indies, a. d. 149t. From the reign of 
John I., down to the year 1580, forms the most brilliant period 
of Portuguese history. It is illustrated by several important 
discoveries, and also by the production of several men of 
learning and genius. 

Chapter I. — 1 . What is said of the history of Portugal ? About 
the year 1094, what took place? Who succeeded Henry? What did 
Alphonso do? — 2. For what is the reign of John I. distinguished? 
During the reign of John II., what was done? 

383 



384 PORTUGAL. 

3. In 1580, Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of the 
weakness of Portugal, occasioned by the extinction of the 
male line of the royal family, seized upon the country, and 
united it to his dominions; by the revolution of 1640, 
the Spaniards were expelled, and the Duke of Braganza, the 
presumptive heir, was raised to the throne, under the title 
of John IV. In 180Y, Portugal was invaded by the French, 
on which occasion King John VI. and the royal family re- 
moved to Brazil, where they remained until the year 1820, 
when John again returned to Lisbon, leaving Dom Pedro, 
his eldest son, as regent of that country. In 1823, Brazil 
renounced its allegiance to Portugal, and was declared an in- 
dependent empire, under Dom Pedro, who assumed the title 
of Emperor. On the death of John VI., the throne of Por- 
tugal became vacant. Dom Pedro, Emperor of Brazil, re- 
signed his claim to the crown in favor of his daughter Don- 
na Maria da Gloria, appointing his sister Isabella regent 
during the infancy of the young Queen ; but Dom Miguel, 
a younger brother of Pedro, usurped the throne in 1828. 

4. The usurper, however, was subsequently expelled, and, 
in 1833, the crown was restored to the lawful heir. For the 
next twenty years, the history of Portugal is made up of 
party contention and political disorder. The death of the 
Queen, in 1853, brought her eldest son, Pedro V., to the 
throne, under the regency of his father. On the sudden 
death of Pedro, in 1861, his brother, Louis I., was pro- 
claimed King. He is a man of taste and learning, and his 
reign has worked many improvements in the condition of 
Portugal. The Catholic religion is that of the State, but all 
other forms of worship are tolerated. There is one univer- 
sity at Coimbra, and the public school system is pretty com- 
plete. 

3. In 1580, what did Philip II. do? In 1640, what was done? In 
1807, by whom was Portugal invaded? What did the royal family 
do ? In 1823, what did Brazil do ? In whose favor did Pedro resign 
his claim? What followed? — 4. W^hen was the usurper expelled? 
What was the state of Portugal from 1833 to 1853? What occurred in 
1853? In 1861 ? What is said of Louis I.? Of religion? Of edu- 
cation ? 



POLAND, 385 



CHAPTER II. 

rOLAND. 

ALTHOUGH the name of Poland has been stricken from 
the list of nations, by the ruthless hand of grasping 
tyranny, that name will ever awake feelings of respectful 
sympathy in all who honor courage and patriotism. Found- 
ed in the sixth century, this kingdom attained some pre- 
eminence only in the early part of the fifteenth century, 
when the throne was filled by Casimir III., surnamed the 
Great. This illustrious prince founded the University of 
Cracow, patronized learning, encouraged industry and com- 
merce, and furnished the nation with a new code of written 
laws. Under the reign of Sigismund I., who was a great 
and accomplished sovereign, Poland reached the meridian 
of her greatness. But of all the sovereigns who swayed 
the Polish sceptre, none have been more distinguished than 
John Sobieski, who succeeded to the throne in 16H. He 
was elected, not from any hereditary right, but on account 
of his virtues and eminent military talents. He maintained 
a successful war against the Turks, and immortalized his 
name by obliging them to raise the siege of Vienna. He 
died in 1696, leaving the country prosperous and happy. 

2. Frederick Augustus, Elector of Saxony, was chosen to 
succeed Sobieski, after an interregnum of twelve months. 
Shortly after his accession, he declared war against Charles 
XIL, King of Sweden ; but being defeated, he was dethroned, 
and through the influence of Charles, at the Diet of War- 
saw, Stanislaus was elected to the throne in his place; but 
after the defeat of the Swedish monarch at the battle of 
Pultowa, Augustus was again restored to the throne. The 
reign of his son Frederick Augustus 11. was generally 
tranquil. 

3. In 1763, Stanislaus Augustus was elected King of Po- 
land, through the influence of Catharine, Empress of Rus- 

Chapter II. — 1. What is remarked of the name' of Poland ? When 
was the kingdom founded, and under whom did it attain pre-eminence ? 
What did this prince do? What is said of Sobieski? Why was he 
elected ? What did he maintain ? — 2. Who was chosen to succeed him ? 
What did he declare? What was the result? What happened after 
the defeat of the Swedish monarch at the battle of Pultowa? — 3. In 
1763, who was elected ? 

33 Z 



386 POLAND. 

sia. Civil commotions soon distracted the kingdom. Un- 
happily, the malcontents were encouraged by the surrounding 
powers, who secretly increased the factions and difficulties 
in which the State was involved, in order that they might 
the more effectually accomplish its ruin. In 17t2 was per- 
petrated one of the most unjust and tyrannical acts recorded 
in history, namely, the dismemberment of Poland by Rus- 
sia, Prussia, and Austria. These three powers, taking ad- 
vantage of the disorder and weakness of the kingdom, agreed 
to divide it among themselves, and the unjust and wicked 
transaction was accomplished. 

4. In the first division, Frederick the Great seized upon 
Polish Prussia and a part of Great Poland. The Empress 
Catharine received Polish Livonia and a part of Lithuania ; 
while Galicia and Lodomeria fell to the share of the Em- 
peror of Austria. After an ineffectual struggle, unhappy 
Poland was obliged to submit to this dismemberment, and to 
sanction, by a legislative act, the injustice that these powers 
had committed against her. In 1791, a revolution took 
place in Poland. A new constitution was formed, in which 
the crown, which had hitherto been elective, was declared 
hereditary, a measure which met the entire approbation of 
the people. 

5. The Empress of Russia, displeased wnth the new con- 
stitution because it opposed her ambitious views, ordered 
her troops to invade the Polish dominions. The Poles flew 
to arms in defence of the rights and liberties of their coun- 
try. They chose for their general the brave and patriotic 
Kosciusko, who had borne a distinguished part in the war 
of the American revolution. 

Por some time they withstood the united forces of their 
enemies ; but at length overpowered by numbers, they were 
defeated, and the gallant Kosciusko was taken prisoner. 
Warsaw was taken and sacked by Suwarrow, the brutal 
Russian General, and nine thousand Poles perished in de- 
fence of their capital. A new division was now agreed on 
between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which included a con- 
siderable part of the remaining portion of the Polish terri- 
tory, A. D. 1793. 

6. Stanislaus, the last of the Polish monarchs, worn out 

What followed ? In 1772, what was perpetrated? — 4. How were the 
divisions made ? What was Poland obliged to do ? In 1791, what took 
place? — 5. What is said of the empress of Russia? Of the Poles? 
Whom did they choose for their general ? What is said of Warsaw ? 
What was now agreed on ? — 6, What is said of Stanislaus ? 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 887 

with age and infirmity, was compelled to resign his crown 
at Grondo, where he died in captivity, during the year 1195. 
This event broke the spirit of the Poles. A final division 
followed, by which the rapacious powers seized upon the 
remaining parts of the country. Thus ill-fated Poland, by 
acts of the vilest tyranny, has been blotted out from the list 
of nations. During the reign of the Emperor Nicholas, an in- 
eff'ectual struggle was made by the Poles to regain the liberty 
of their country. From January till September, 1831, a series 
of bloody conflicts was fought, in which the Prussians and Aus- 
trians, with a subservience that was truly pitiable, aided the 
autocrat of '' all the Russias." The Poles battled with des- 
perate bravery against such overwhelming odds ; but tyran- 
nical might triumphed, and they were crushed to the earth, 
llie outbreaks of 1833, 1846, 1861, and 1863 were punished 
by the gallows, transportation to the wilds of Siberia, and 
unheard-of cruelties. Whether Poland shall ever again take 
its place among the nations of Europe, is one of the secrets 
concealed in the bosom of time. The future alone can re- 
veal it. 



CHAPTER III. 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 



THE early history of Sweden is obscure and unimportant. 
Together with Norway, it formed a part of ancient 
Scandinavia, and was first inhabited by the Cirabri, a race 
of German origin. Christianity was not introduced until 
the middle ages. In the latter part of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway were united into one 
kingdom by Margaret of Sweden, who has been styled the 
Semiramis of the North, in allusion to the greatness of the 
ancient Queen of Assyria. During the reign of Christian 
II., King of Denmark, a revolution took place, by which the 
Swedes were delivered from the Danish yoke, and Gustavus 
Vasa, a descendant of the ancient kings, was raised to the 

What followed ? During the reign of Nicholas, what was made ? 
What is said of the conflicts of 1831? How did the Poles battle? 
What is said of later outbreaks ? 

Chapter III. — 1. What is said of the early history? In the four- 
teenth century, what was done ? During the reign of Christian, what 
took place ? 



388 SWEDEN AND NORAYAY. 

throne of Sweden in 1527. Though in many respects an 
able raler, who did much for the material progress and pros- 
perity of his kingdom, he withdrew it from the Catholic re- 
ligion and introduced Lutheranism. 

2. Gustavus Adolphus, a grandson of Gustavus Yasa, and 
one of the greatest of the Swedish monarchs, succeeded to 
the throne in 1611. He was eminent as a statesman, and 
is ranked among the most famous and successful generals of 
his age. He was victorious in his war against Denmark, 
Russia, and Poland. In a w^ar with the Imperialists, he 
defeated them in the battle of Leipsic in 1632 ; and again 
in that of Lutzen, in which he lost his life. He was suc- 
ceeded by his daughter Christiana, who governed Sweden 
with much prudence and wisdom until the year 1654, when 
she resigned her crown to her cousin Charles Gustavus, left 
her country, and devoted the remainder of her days in the 
pursuit of science and literature, first at Paris, and finally 
at Rome, where she died, having previously embraced the 
faith of her fathers — the Catholic religion. 

3. Charles XII., sometimes styled the Madman of the 
North, ascended the throne of Sweden in 1697, at the age 
of fifteen years. Shortly after his accession, he found his 
kingdom attacked in three different quarters, by Russia, 
Denmark, and Poland. With a courage and resolution not 
to be expected from a youth of seventeen, Charles succes- 
sively took the field against these powers, and signally de- 
feated their forces. One of the most memorable victories 
recorded in history, he obtained at Varna, where, with only 
eight thousand men, he defeated the Russian army of eighty 
thousand, of whom thirty thousand were taken prisoners. 

4. Having reduced Courland and Lithuania, he entered 
Poland and took Warsaw and Cracow. A negotiation 
having been proposed on the part of Russia, Charles ab- 
ruptly replied that he would treat at Moscow, then the capi- 
tal of the Russian empire. Accordingly, in the midst of a 
severe winter, he invaded Russia, and advanced with his 
army as far as Pultowa, where he was met by his great rival 
Peter the Great. A tremendous engagement followed, and 
the Swedes suffered a total defeat. Charles fled with the 

2. What is said of Gustavus? Where did he lose his life ? By whom 
was he succeeded? In 1632, what did she do? — 3. Who ascended the 
throne in 1697 ? After his accession, what did he find? What memo- 
rable victory did he obtain ? — 4. Having reduced Courland, what did 
he do ? When did he invade Kussia ? Where and by whom was he 
met ? After this, where did Charles retire ? 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 389 

shattered remainder of his army into Turkey, where he dis- 
played the conduct of a maniac rather than that of a wise 
general and prudent prince. Being ordered to leave Turkey 
he refused to comply, and proceeded to fortify his camp. 
With only three thousand men he defended himself for some 
time against twenty thousand Turks, and only yielded when 
he was taken by the arm and led forcibly to the tent of the 
Bashaw. 

5. Having at length returned from Turkey, he resolved 
upon the conquest of Norway. Accordingly, at the head of 
his army, he invaded that country in the month of October, 
and with eighteen thousand men laid siege to Frederick- 
shall. On the 30th of November, 1718, as he visited the 
trenches for the purpose of encouraging and animating his 
men, he stood with his arm resting upon the parapet, while 
the enemy poured a shower of balls upon the spot where he 
stood. In this exposed situation Charles remained for some 
time, apparently unconscious of his danger; at length he 
was struck by a cannon-ball in the temple, and fell with a 
groan against the parapet. While in the act of falling, he 
grasped with his right hand the hilt of his sword as if to 
avenge the blow, an action which forcibly displayed the 
leading characteristic of his mind. 

6. On the death of Charles, Sweden enjoyed comparative 
repose under the reign of his sister Ulrica, and also under 
that of her husband the Prince of Hesse, to whom she re- 
signed her crown. On his death, Adolphus Frederick was 
elected to the throne. His reign was somewhat disturbed 
by the factions of the Senate. In Ittl, Gustavus III. hav- 
ing succeeded to the throne, deprived the Senate of its power 
and rendered himself absolute ; he made, however, a moderate 
use of his authority, and the rest of his reign was passed in 
tranquillity. He was assassinated while attending a masquer- 
ade ball in 1792. 

7. Adolphus was succeeded by his son Gustavus lY., under 
the regency of the Duke of Sudermania. After a weak and 
extravagant reign he was dethroned, and the crown was 
transferred to the Duke of Sudermania, who assumed the 
title of Charles XIII., a. d. 1809. But this King having 

Being ordered to leave Turkey, what did he do ? — 5. What did he 
resolve? At what season did he invade the country? On the 11th of 
December, what did he do? In the act of falling, what did he do? — 
6. On the death of Charles, what is said of Sweden ? In 1771, who suc- 
ceeded ? Of what did he deprive the senate ? How did he die ? — 7. 
To whom was the crown transferred ? 
33* 



890 DENMARK. 

no children, Bernadotfe,'^ a favorite general of Napoleon, was, 
through the Emperor's influence, declared Crown Prince, and 
obtained the right of succession, and on the death of Charles 
quietly succeeded to the throne as Charles XIY., a. d. 1818. 
Before this time, Norway was taken from Denmark and 
annexed to Sweden. 

8. Under Bernadotte's able administration the united king- 
doms of Sweden and Norway made great advances in politi- 
cal progress and material prosperity. It is, indeed, true that 
the people in general entertained very little affection for their 
strange sovereign ; but his son and successor, Oscar, and his 
grandsons, the late King Charles XY., and the present 
King, Oscar II., who came to the throne in 1872, have so 
identified themselves with their subjects that the Berna- 
dotte dynasty is firmly established on the throne of Gus- 
tavus Adolphus. 

9. Sweden is an hereditary and constitutional monarchy. 
In religion the King must be a Lutheran. The Diet, or 
legislative assembly, is composed of an upper house and a 
lower house — both elected by the people. Electors must be 
twenty-one years of age, and have a small property or in- 
come. The great body of the people are Lutherans in be- 
lief, and none but a Lutheran can hold any position in the 
public service. Attendance at school is compulsory for all 
children. 



CHAPTER ly. 

DENMARK. 



THE history of Denmark begins to emerge from obscurity 
during the reign of Waldemar L, who obtained the throne 
in 115T, after a ten years' contest with his competitor. He 

* He was a native of France, and his full name was John Baptist 
Julius Bernadotte. He was born a CathoHc, but on becoming King of 
Sweden he had the meanness to change both his name and his religion. 

Through the emperor's influence who was declared Crown Prince, 
and when did he ascend the throne ? — 8. What is remarked of Berna- 
dotte's administration ? Of his successors ? — 9. What kind of a mon- 
archy is Sweden ? What must the king be ? Describe the Diet. How 
must electors be qualified? W^hat is said of religion and education? 

Chapter IV. — 1. When does the history of Denmark begin to emerge 
from obscurity ? 



DENMARK. 891 

laid the foundation of the city of Dantzic and subdued the 
Courlanders. In 138t, Queen Margaret, a woman of ex- 
traordinary ability ascended the Danish throne. She united 
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark in one kingdom, and governed 
them with much prudence and wisdom. In 1448, Christian, 
Count of Aldenberg, from whom the present royal family are 
descended, succeeded to the throne. 

2. The government was originally elective, and continued 
so until the year 1660, during the reign of Frederick III., 
when, by the voice of the people, it was changed into an 
hereditary and absolute monarchy. During the reign of 
Frederick lY., Denmark waged a successful war against 
Charles XII. of Sweden, which terminated shortly after the 
death of that monarch, by the peace of Stockholm. During 
the reign of Christian YI. and Frederick Y., the kingdom 
remained in a peaceful and prosperous condition. Christian 
YII., a weak and dissolute prince, having ascended the throne 
in 1166, married Caroline Matilda, sister to George III. of 
England. This unhappy Princess having been accused of 
harboring hostile designs against the government, in con- 
junction with Counts Brandt and Struensee, was arrested 
and sent to the castle of Bronenburg, with her infant daughter. 
The two unfortunate noblemen were immediately executed ; 
Matilda, however, was removed to Zell in Hanover, where 
she died at the age of twenty-three years. 

In 1801, after a long and prosperous peace, Denmark allied 
herself with several of the great European powers, and was 
soon involved in war with England. The result was the 
battle of Copenhagen, in which Admiral Nelson destroyed 
the Danish navy. 

3. Frederick YI. succeeded his father to the throne in 1808. 
During the first year of his reign, at a time when the country 
was at peace, the British fleet, under Lord Cathcart and 
Admiral Gambier, bombarded the city of Copenhagen under 
the pretence that information had been received that Den- 
mark intended to throw itself in favor of France. The Dan- 
ish fleet, consisting of eighteen ships of the line and sixteen 
frigates, were destroyed by the British. This completely 
paralyzed the nation. 

Who ascended the throne in 1387? Who succeeded in 1448?— 2. 
What is said of the original government ? During the reign of Fred- 
erick lY., what is said of Denmark? What is said of Christian YIL ? 
What is related of this unhappy princess ? Kelate what happened in 
1801.— 3. When did Frederick VI. succeed his father? What took 
place during his reign ? 



392 HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 

4. Denmark was compelled by the Congress of Vienna to 
cede Norway to Sweden. On the death of Frederick VII in 
1863, the present King, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Hol- 
stem, ascended the throne under the title of Christian IX 
The J'Schleswig-Holstein question "—one of the most intricate 
m the pohtics of Europe—plunged the little kingdom into a 
war with Austria and Prussia. The Danes fought bravely 
but were soon overwhelmed and compelled to submit to the 
terms of their powerful foes. Schleswig-Holstein and the 
duchy of Lauenburg were ceded to the German powers in 
1864. 

5. Although reduced to the narrow limits of the islands and 
Jutland smce the war, Denmark has recovered from its fall 
and enjoys a high degree of social and political freedom! 
i he country has a very complete system of public instruction, 
l^utheranism is the established religion, and the King must 
be a member of that church. The national assembly consists 
of two houses, an upper and a lower. 



CHAPTER Y. 

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 

THE territories, now divided into the small kingdoms of 
Holland and Belgium, were formerly called the Nether- 
lands or Low Countries. At an early period of their history 
they were divided into various petty states, and governed 
by Counts or Earls. They were united to Germanv sub- 
sequent to the reign of Charlemagne, but regained their in- 
dependence in the tenth century. In 1443, they became sub- 
jeet to Burgundy, at which time they began to excite the 
attention of Europe for their extensive manufactures and 
commerce. They were again transferred to the house of 
Austria by the Emperor Maximilian. 

2. In 1555, they w ere resigned by Charles Y. to his son 

4. What is said of Denmark and the congress of Vienna? Who is 
the present king, and when did he come to the throne ? What caused 
a war with Austria and Prussia? How did it end ?-5 What 1 the 
'''^'Z^L"::t'T1'^Tr''' 5^,rtion? Eeligion? Government? 
How ™ fi, T •^^^^^^'^^''^ Holland and Belgium formerly called? 
Hoiv ^N ere they divided and governed at an early period ? When were 
they united to the German empire ? What took place m 1443 ?-2 To 
whom were they given in 1555 ? to. ^. j.o 



SWITZERLAND. 393 

Philip II. of Spain, from whom they revolted and estab- 
lished their independence, under the title of the Seven United 
Provinces of Holland. Spain still retained possession of 
several smaller provinces until the peace of Utrecht, in 1718, 
when they were ceded to Austria. In It 95 the United Prov- 
inces were overrun and conquered by the French, on which 
occasion William Y. and his family were obliged to escape to 
England in a fishing-boat, and French rule began. After 
remaining for some time united to the French Empire, they 
were erected, on the fall of Napoleon I ., into a kingdom, 
under the government of the Prince of Orange, who was 
styled King of the Netherlands. 

8. In 1830 the dissatisfaction of the southern provinces 
broke into open revolution, and the kingdom of Belgium was 
established Leopold I., a German prince, was called to the 
throne in 1881, and on his death, in 1865, he was succeeded 
by the present King, Leopold II. Belgium has recently 
celebrated its half century of almost uninterrupted peace, 
prosperity, and independence. 

4. For some time after the withdrawal of Belgium, the 
people of Holland showed much discontent towards their 
government. In 1840 the old King abdicated in favor of 
his son, William 11. , who eight years later granted a new 
constitution to the country. He died in 1849, and the present 
ruler, William III., ascended the throne. Holland is a pros- 
perous nation. 



CHAPTER yi. 

SWITZERLAND. 



I 



N the year 1273, Rodolph of Hapsburg, who was possessed 
of considerable territories in Switzerland, was raised to 
the throne of Germany. Obliged to acknowledge the su- 
premacy of the empire, the Swiss Cantons, though free in 
their internal government, became restless and discontented. 

In 1795, what is said of tliem? What occurred on the fall of Napo- 
leon ?— 8. In 1 830, what new kingdom was established ? Who was the 
first king? Who is the present'king? What has Belgium recently 
celebrated? — 4. How did the people of Holland feel towards the gov- 
ernment? What happened in 1840? In 1849? Who is the present 
king of Holland? What is the condition of the country ? 

Chapter VI. — 1. To what country were the Swiss subject? 



894 MODERN GREECE. 

The Emperor Albert, son and successor of Rodolph, indig- 
nant at the spirit of freedom they occasionally manifested, 
determined to force them to subjection. 

2. Gesler, one of his officers, had erected a pole in the 
market-square, on which he placed his hat, commanding the 
passers-by to pay it homage. William Tell refused. He 
was sentenced to death, but his sentence was changed into a 
command to shoot an apple from the head of his son ; and if 
he failed, both he and his son were to be executed. Tell hit 
the apple, but an arrow having been discovered in his pos- 
session, which he confessed was intended for Gesler's heart 
in case of failure, he was imprisoned. Placed on board a 
boat to be conveyed across Lake Luzerne, a storm arose, 
and Tell was unbound, that his skill might save the vessel. 
He guided her course to the shore, where, leaping upon a 
rock, he killed Gesler with an arrow, and then escaped to his 
friends, already arming in defence of their endangered liber- 
ties. It is due to truth, however, to say that recent re- 
searches cast great doubt upon the whole legend of "William 
Tell." 

3. At the battle of Morgarten, the brave mountaineers, 
with one thousand three hundred infantry, defeated the Em- 
peror Leopold and twenty-one thousand cavalry. This battle 
was fought in the year 1315, and the independence of Switzer- 
land, thus gloriously achieved, still flourishes, after the lapse 
of over five hundred years, in undiminished vigor, firm and 
immovable as her own native Alps. 



CHAPTER yil. 

MODERN GREECE. 



IN our view of Ancient Greece, we pursued its history to 
its final conquest and subjugation by the Romans. The 
subsequent history of this country, until the building of Con- 
stantinople, and the great division of the Roman Empire 
by the transfer of the seat of government from Rome to 
that city, presents but few events of importance. After 

2. Eelate the story of William Tell.— 3. Describe the battle of Mor- 
garten. How long have the Swiss maintained their independence? 

Chapter VII. — 1. In the review of Ancient Greece, how far did we 
pursue its history ? What is said of the subsequent history ? 



MODERN GREECE. 895 

the death of Theodosiiis the Great, the last sovereign who 
presided over both divisions of the empire, his son Arcadius 
reig-ned in the East, and therefore may be regarded as the 
first of the Greek Emperors. 

2. He was a weak and indolent prince, controlled in every 
transaction by his wife Eudox'ia, a haughty and imperious 
woman, and his whole reign presents scarcely a single ac- 
tion worthy of the son of the illustrious Theodosiiis. He 
was succeeded by his son Theodosiiis the Younger, whose 
reign was short, and, like that of his father, was unimpor- 
tant. The emperors who succeeded Theodosius, until the 
reign of Justinian, have left behind them no transactions 
that deserve a notice in this brief review of history. 

3. Justin'ian had been associated in the empire with Jus- 
tin I., and succeeded to the sole command on the death of 
that Emperor, in the year 52*7. Justinian displayed his 
greatest wisdom in the choice he made of his ministers ; and 
his reign is conspicuous, not for any memorable . transaction 
of his own, but chiefly for the military operations of his 
generals. The great and illustrious Belisa'rius, one of the 
most distinguished of his generals, defeated the Persians in 
three sanguinary battles ; destroyed the kingdom of the 
Yandals in Africa, and led their sovereign captive to Con- 
stantinople ; wrested Italy from the hand of the Gothic 
princes, and restored it for a short period to the dominions 
of Justinian. 

4. The Goths a second time overran Italy, and again 
Belisarius was sent against them. But being left without 
the means necessary for conducting the war, that celebrated 
commander was doomed to see his former prosperity decline 
and himself treated with neglect by the man whose empire 
he had so repeatedly and so successfully defended against 
its foreign and domestic enemies. He was superseded in 
the command by Nar'ses, who had the honor of termina- 
ting the war in Italy. He defeated Totila in a decisive en- 
gagement on the plains of Lentagio, in which the Gothic 
king was slain, and governed Italy under the title of Duke 
for thirteen years. 

5. While victory crowned the arms of Justinian in the 
West, the ravages of war threatened the destruction of bis 

Who is regarded as the first of the Greek emperors ? — 2. What was 
he ? By whom was he succeeded ? — 3. In what did Justinian display 
his greatest wisdom ? What did Belisarius do ? — 4. What is said of 
the Goths ? What was the general doomed to see ? By whom was he 
superseded ? Whom did Narsus defeat ? 



396 MODERN GREECE. 

empire in the East. Chos'roes the Great, King of Persia, 
for several years spread devastation over the rich and fertile 
provinces of Mesopotamia and Syria, frequently routing the 
arm}^ of the Emperor with immense loss. Scarcely was 
peace concluded with this formidable enemy, than the Runs, 
a furious and warlike race, made an irruption into Thrace, 
and even threatened the capital itself. Once more the em- 
pire was saved through the valor of Belisarius. Though 
far advanced in years, and scarcely able to wield his sword, 
he marched against the barbarians, and compelled them to 
retire. Unfortunately for this great man, he lived under 
the reign of a prince who was unable to appreciate his merits. 
In return for his many services rendered to the empire, the 
ungrateful Justinian, on mere suspicion of his being privy to 
a late couspiracy, stripped him of all his honors, caused him 
to be arrested and cast into prison, where he languished for 
several months.* 

6. Justinian died in the eighty-fourth year of his age and 
in the thirty-ninth of his reign, a. d. 565. It was not, how- 
ever, the military operations of this Emperor that render his 
reign so distinguished. The famous body of laws prepared 
under his direction, by the learned Trihonian, known by the 
name of the Justinian Code, have reflected a brighter lustre 
on his name, and have conferred greater benefits on posterity 
than all the military achievements of his generals. From 
this code the different States of Europe have derived the 
greater portion of the laws that make up their respective 
codes. Previous to the time of Justinian, to become ac- 
quainted with the ancient jurisprudence, it was necessary to 
peruse nearly two thousand volumes, a task which would 
take the longest lifetime to perform. The Justinian code 
was comprised in about fifty books, to which were added 
four others, called the Institutes, containing the fundamental 
principles of all legislation. 

T. Justinian was succeeded in the empire by his nephew 
Justin II. Though a prince of much virtue, Justin was a 
man of weak intellect, and wholly governed by his consort 

* See Short Biographies of Eminent Personages. 

5, What is said of Chosroes the Great ? Of the Huns ? How was 
the empire saved? In return, what did he receive?— 6. When did 
Justinian die ? What has his body of laws reflected ? From this code, 
what has been derived ? Previous to this time, what was necessary ? — 
7. By whom was Justinian succeeded? What was he? By whom was 
he governed ? 



MODERN GREECE. 397 

Sophia, whose arrogant conduct brought new disasters on 
the empire. Against Narses, who still governed in Italy, 
the Empress had long harbored a deadly hatred; and now 
believing herself in an elevation from which she could fear- 
lessly wreak her vengeance, she sent him an insolent order 
to quit Italy and return to Constantinople. Narses, who 
inherited much of the military abilities of Belisarius, but 
wanted the patriotism and virtuous forbearance of that illus- 
trious general, wrote to Alboinus, the King of the Lom- 
bards, and invited him to avenge the insult he had received. 
But scarcely had he consented to this hasty step, than he 
repented of an act which tended to dishonor a life otherwise 
distinguished by so many brilliant achievements. But his 
repentance came too late to prevent the evil. The Lombards 
had already set out for Italy, and having crossed the Alps, 
they subdued that part of the country called from them Lom- 
bardy, and made Pavia the capital of their kingdom. 

8. The Persians under Chosroes again laid waste the 
eastern provinces of the empire. At the intelligence of these 
disasters, Justin was thrown into a deep melancholy, which 
gradually degenerated into a partial insanity. Perceiving 
that he was unable to direct the affairs of government alone, 
he had the prudence to associate with himself a colleague in 
the empire. The choice fell upon Tiberius, a man in every 
respect qualified for the important station. The honor of 
the empire was soon retrieved. Chosroes was driven to the 
extremity of Persia, where, being unable to survive his de- 
feat, he died of grief and despair, after a reign of forty-eight 
years. 

9. The words of Justin upon the introduction of Tiberius 
to the empire, are worthy of record : " Love the people as 
yourself, cultivate the affection and maintain the discipline 
of the army ; protect the fortunes of the rich, and relieve the 
necessities of the poor." Tiberius, during his short reign, 
which lasted four years after the death of Justin, was never 
known to depart from this excellent advice ; and on his death- 
bed he nominated Maurice, who had proved himself an able 
general, as his successor to the throne. 

10. The reign of this Emperor was turbulent and his end 
tragical. He possessed many virtues, and on some occasions 

What is related of Narses? What did he do?— 8. What did the 
Persians do ? What happened to Justin ? What had he the prudence to 
do ? On whom did the choice fall ?— 9. What were the words of Justin 
to Tiberius ? What is said of Tiberius ?— 10. What is said of the reign 
of this prince ? 
34 



398 MODERN GREECE. 

displayed a considerable degree of prudence and courage, but 
avarice is said to have been his greatest fault. During one 
of his campaigns, twelve thousand of his troops fell into the 
hands of the enemy, Maurice refused to redeem them, al- 
though but a small sum was asked for their ransom ; and 
this refusal so enraged the barbarians, that they put them all 
to the sword. While this unworthy conduct excited against 
him the loudest complaints, he had the imprudence to order 
his troops to take up their quarters in the enemy's country, 
and to subsist there during the winter by plunder. The sol- 
diers, exasperated at this command, revolted, and, having 
proclaimed Fhocas Emperor, advanced towards Constanti- 
nople. 

11. At the news of this event, Maurice endeavored to 
make his escape with his family ; but at Chalcedon he fell 
into the hands of his pursuers, and his five sons were barbar- 
ously put to death in the presence of their unhappy father, 
who, in the bitterness of his affliction, repeated these words 
of the royal prophet : " Thou art just, Lord, and thy judg- 
ment is right.''^ When the nurse endeavored to conceal the 
royal infant, and ofl'ered her own child to the executioner, 
Maurice refused to allow the deception. The tragical scene 
was ended by the execution of the Emperor himself, who thus 
perished with his unfortunate children. 

12. Fhocas did not long enjoy his ill-gotten crown. While 
he remained shut up in his capital, Chosroes II., King of the 
Persians, crossed the boundary of empire, and spread deso- 
lation over some of the most fertile districts of Mesopotamia 
and Syria. The Senate of Constantinople, seeing nothing 
done for the defence of the empire, invited Herac'lius, the 
governor of Africa, to their assistance, offering him the im- 
perial throne as the reward of his services. Heraclius hav- 
ing declined the honor on account of his advanced age, the 
offer was eagerly embraced by his son, of the same name, 
who, immediately embarking with a select body of troops, 
arrived before the walls of Constantinople almost before the- 
usurper had any intimation of his approach. Fhocas, deserted 
by his friends, was instantly seized and beheaded ; while at 
the same time Heraclius was proclaimed Emperor, a. d. 610. 

What happened durina; one campaign? What did he refuse? What 
did he order? AVhat did the soldiers do? — 11. At this news, what did 
Maurice do? At Chalcedon, what is related of him? What did he 
repeat? What is said of the nurse?— 12, What is said of Phocas? 
What did the Senate do ? By whom was the offer embraced ? What 
was the end of Phocas ? 



MODERN GREECE. 399 

13. The reign of this Emperor was ahnost one unbroken 
series of war and victory over his formidable neighbors, the 
Persians, whom he defeated in six successive campaigns, and 
at length obliged them to sue for peace. During his reign, 
which lasted for upwards of thirty years, he continued to 
defend and preserve the dignity of the empire. The several 
Emperors who succeeded Heraclius, have left little of im- 
portance to distinguish their reigns. The reign of Constan- 
tine Pagonatus is conspicuous for the memorable siege which 
Constantinople sustained against the Saracens, who for several 
successive years presented themselves before the walls of the 
city, but were as often vigorously repulsed, and at last 
obliged to abandon the enterprise. One of the most de- 
structive agents used by the Greeks during this age was the 
Greek Fire, which had the peculiar property of burning in 
water, and could only be extinguished by sand, wine, or 
vinegar. It was invented by a Syrian named Collinicus, 
and employed with great effect by the Greeks in their different 
wars for several centuries, before the secret of its composition 
was discovered by the neighboring nations. 

14. Justinian XL, who succeeded Constantine, was distin- 
guished for his cruelty. He was at length banished from the 
empire, but having regained the throne by the assistance of 
the Bulgarians, he exercised the most fearful vengeance on 
his enemies. His reign, however, was cut short by assassi- 
nation. In the short space of six years, the sceptre passed 
through the hands of three successive Emperors. In 717, 
Leo, surnamed the Isau'rian, succeeded in wresting it from 
the hand of the weak Theodosius III. 

15. The reign of this monarch is more conspicuous for the 
\iolent hostility which he manifested towards the use of 
sacred images in the churches than for any important service 
he rendered to the empire. Leo, whose stunted mind was 
unable to comprehend that the veneration of images is only 
an inferior honor paid to the persons whom they represent, 
published a fanatical edict against the use of them in churches. 
In consequence of this order, the pictures and images of 
Christ and of the saints were removed, not, however, with- 
out causing loud complaints and much disturbance. On one 



13. What was the reign of this emperor? For what is the reign of 
Constantine Pagonatus conspicuous ? What was one of the most de- 
structive agents? What is said of it? — 14. What is said of Justinian 
II. ? What took place ? — 15. For what is his reign memorable ? What 
is said of Leo? What was the consequence of this order? 



400 MODERN GEEECE. 

occasion, the enraged Leo brutally ordered the execution of 
twelve librarians, whom he was unable to gain over to his 
party ; and the imperial blockhead even caused the destruction 
of the public library of Constantinople. The persecution was 
carried on under his successors, Constantine and Leo IV., 
until the affair was fiwially settled by the seventh General 
Council, held at Nice, which solemnly decided that the rela- 
tive honor paid to images was strictly in accordance with 
Scripture and the early practice of the Church, and wholly 
free from the charge of idolatry and superstition. 

16. During the minority of Constantine Y., the Empress 
Irene, his mother, was appointed regent She was a woman 
distinguished alike for her great abilities and cruelt}^ By 
her order, her son was deposed, and murdered in a barbarous 
manner. After this she governed alone for five years ; but 
an insurrecction being excited against her, she was in her 
turn deposed, and Niceph/orus the great treasurer, pro- 
claimed Emperor. The unfortunate Irene was banished to 
the Isle of Lesbos, where, it is said, she was obliged to gain 
a scanty subsistence by the labor of her hands, a melancholy 
example of blasted ambition. 

It. Nicephorus, did not long enjoy the honor to which he 
was raised, for, having undertaken an expedition against the 
Bulgarians, he w^as defeated and slain in battle. During the 
short reigns of Stauraciiis and llichael, the Bulgarians in 
their turn invaded the empire, and carried their devastations 
so far as even to threaten the capital itself. Such was the 
situation of things, when Leo the Armenian ascended the 
throne. Being a man of great military abilities, he imme- 
diately marched against the Bulgarians, over whom he 
gained several decisive victories, and after a prosperous 
reign of seven years, he was assassinated by the partisans 
of Michael, the commander of the guards, who was raised 
from the prison (where he had been confined on a charge 
of rebellion) to the throne. During the reign of this weak 
and profligate prince, the empire suffered the loss of the 
islands of Crete and Sicily, which were conquered by the 
Mussulmen ; and during the reign of Theophilus, his succes- 
sor, the eastern Saracens took and destroyed the flourishing 

On one occasion, what did the enraged Emperor order? When was 
the affair settled? What did it decide? — 16. During the minority of 
Constantine, who was appointed regent? What was done by her order? 
What was excited against her? What was her fate? — 17. What is said 
of Nicephorus? Against whom did Leo march? What was his end? 
What is said of the empire during the reign of this prince ? 



MODERN GREECE. 401 

city of Amorium, in Asia Minor, and led thirty thousand 
of its inhabitants as captives into Persia. 

18. Theophilus was succeeded by his son, Michael III., a 
man of the most dissolute character and abandoned habits. 
It was during the reign of this Emperor, that the first sep- 
aration of the Greeks from the Catholic Church took place.* 
After a reign of twenty-five years, he was assassinated in 
a state of intoxication, and Basil the Macedonian, his col- 
league, a man of humble birth, was acknowledged as sole 
Emperor, a. d. 867. Through the vigilance and activity of 
Basil, the disorders of the preceding reign were soon re- 
moved, and peace restored to every department of the state. 
He waged successful war against the Saracens, and after a 
successful reign of nineteen years, he died from an accident 
which he received in the chase, A. d. 886. 

19. Under the succeeding Emperors, until the reign of 
Nicephorus Phocas, who ascended the throne in 963, the 
Greek empire had greatly fallen from its former splendor. 
Nicephorus, by his great military talents, for a short period, 
supported its declining glory. Having recovered the island 
of Crete, he next invaded Asia, and wrested from the Sara- 
cens several towns and provinces, which he united to the 
empire. By his avarice and exactions, he at length alienated 
the affection of his subjects. A conspiracy having been 
formed against him, he was assassinated ; and John Zemisces, 
one of the chief conspirators, was raised to the throne. 

20. This Emperor, although he wore the crown of his 
murdered sovereign, directed the affairs of government with 
sn able hand. He effectually repelled the irruption of the 
Russians, whom he defeated in several sanguinary battles, 
and finally compelled them to retire to their own dominions. 
He was equally successful in his war against the Saracens, 
who, availing themselves of his absence, had conquered 
several places in Asia. His prosperous career, however, was 
cut short by the treachery of his chief minister, who caused 
him to be poisoned, in the sixth year of his reign. 

21. After his death, Basil 11. and Gonstantine YIII. 
reigned jointly together, but the exercise of the supremo 

* See the Chapters on the history of The Church. 

18, By whom was Theophilus succeeded ? What took place during 
his reign ? What was his end ? Who succeeded ? When did he die ? 
— 19. What is said of Nicephorus? What was his fate? Who suc- 
ceeded ? — 20. What is said of this emperor? What was his end? — 21. 
After his death, who reigned jointly? Who exercised the supreme 
authority ? 

34^ 2 A 



402 MODERN GREECE. 

authority was left entirely to the former. He was possessed 
of a military and enterprising spirit. He reduced Bulgaria, 
and considerably extended the limits of the empire in the 
East. He was preparing for an expedition against the Sar- 
acens of Sicily, when he died, in the sixty-eighth year of 
his age and fifty-first of his reign, a, d. 1025. During the 
fifty succeeding years, fifteen diiferent Emperors filled the 
throne in succession, but their reigns are not distinguished 
for any remarkable transactions. At the time of the Cru- 
sades, Constantinople was taken by the French and Vene- 
tians, and held by them for a period of near sixty years, 
during which time the Greek Emperors reigned at Nice. In 
1261, in the reign of 3Iichael Falaeolo'gus, Constantinople 
was again recovered from the conquerors. 

22. In the year 1453, during the reign of Constantine 
Falasologus, Constantinople was besieged and taken by the 
Turks, under Mahomet II.* Since that eventful period, until 
recent years, Greece was subject to Mahometan dominion. 
All the annoyances that ignorance, brutality, tyranny, and 
greed could suggest, were practised by the Turks on the 
much-enduring Greeks ; but at length human nature could 
endure no longer, and, in 1820, the Greeks sounded the toc- 
sin of rebellion. After the war had continued for a number 
of years, several of the European powers interposed in their 
behalf. On the 20th of October, 1828, the combined fleets 
of England, France, and Russia completely destroyed the 
Turkish naval force in the battle of Navarino — an event 
which secured the independence of Greece. It became a 
kingdom, and, in 1832, Ot/io, a son of the King of Bavaria, 
was called to the throne. Though his rule was not fruitless, 
he had many difficulties to encounter, and, after a reign of 
thirty years, he was banished. George L, a son of Chris- 
tian IX. of Denmark, was elected King in 1863. 
* See Turkey. 

What did he reduce? When did lie die? At the time of the Cru- 
sades, what happened ? In 1261, what took place? — 22. In 1453, what 
took place ? Since that time until recent years, what has been the his- 
tory of Greece? What occurred in 1820? Who interposed in behalf 
of the Greeks? What naval battle was fought in 1828 ? What did it 
secure? Who was called to the throne of Greece in 1832? What is 
said of his reign ? Wlio was elected king in 1863? 



TURKEY. 403 

CHAPTER YIII. 

TURKEY. 

THE Turks derive their origin from the Huns, who in- 
habited Grand Tartary, in Asia. At the commencement 
of the eighth century, we find them issuing from their ob- 
scure abode and settling in Pannonia and Asia Minor. At 
first their dominions were divided into various small states, 
and governed by persons called Emirs. Towards the close 
of the twelfth century, Othman or Ottoman, who assumed 
the title of Sultan, succeeded in uniting them in one mon- 
archy, and established the seat of his government at Prusa, 
in Bithynia. 

2. Previous to this period, the Turks or Ottomans (so 
called from the name of the founder of their monarchy) had 
embraced the religion of Mahomet, which they retain to the 
present time. During the reign of this monarch, they ex- 
tended their dominions to the borders of the Greek empire ; 
and during the reign of his successor they crossed the Helles- 
pont on rafts, took Gallipoli, entered Thrace, and thus laid 
the foundation of their empire in Europe. Baj'azet I. had 
formed the project of invading Greece and reducing its capital, 
Constantinople, but was obliged to defer the execution of his 
design in order to defend himself against the encroachments 
of the celebrated Tam'erlane, king of the Usbec Tartars, who 
had invaded his dominions. The two mighty chieftains met 
at Angora, where was fought one of the most sanguinary 
battles recorded in history. The united combatants amounted 
to nearly one million of men, of whom three hundred thousand 
were left dead upon the field. Bajazet fell into the hands of 
the conqueror, and shortly afterwards destroyed himself in 
despair. 

3. The reign of Amurath II. was distinguished by his un- 
successful attempt to render himself master of the Greek 
capital, and his war with Poland. He was succeeded by his 

Chapter VIII.— 1. From whom do the Turks derive their origin? 
In the eighth century, what do we find ? Towards the close of the twelfth 
century, what took place? — 2, Previous to this period, what had the 
Turks embraced ? What did they do during the reign of this monarch 
and his successor? What project had Bajazet I. formed? Where did 
the two chieftains meet? What was the number of the combatants and 
tlie number slain? — 3. For what was the reign of Amurath II. dis- 
tinguished ? By whom was he succeeded ? 



404 TURKEY. 

son Mahomet II., surnamed the Great, who immediately 
undertook the favorite object of his predecessor, namely, the 
reduction of the capital of the Eastern Empire. After some 
short delay in making the necessary preparations, he assailed 
the city of Constantinople both by sea and land. The in- 
dolent inhabitants, deeming- themselves secure beneath the 
shelter of those walls, which for ages had bid defiance to 
every assault, made but a feeble preparation for their defense. 
Constantine, the last of the Greek emperors, alone seemed 
conscious of the impending danger, and began to prepare, 
with prudence and vigor, for the contest that was to decide 
the fate of his empire. 

4. He continued night and day with his troops, to animate 
them by his presence, and to encourage them by his heroic 
example. On the other hand, Mahomet, by the promise of 
increased pay and the spoils of the city in case of victory, 
stimulated his soldiers to redoubled energy. Both ancient 
and modern artillery were brought to bear during this memo- 
rable siege. The impregnable walls of Constantinople at 
length yielded to the combined force of the battering-ram 
and the cannon. On the 29th of May the city was taken by 
an assault and delivered up to the plunder of the barbarous 
victors. Constantine fell gloriously defending his country 
and his throne, and was afterwards found buried amidst the 
heaps of the dead and wounded. 

5. The great church of St. Sophia was immediately con- 
verted into a mosque, and the Turkish crescent elevated upon 
the dome where the cross had for ages reigned. A crier 
proclaimed a public invitation to prayer in the name of God 
and his prophet, and Mahomet II. knelt at the altar, where 
only a few days before the brave but ill-fated Catholic Con- 
stantine, the last of the Caesars, had received the Sacrament 
of the Holy Eucharist. 

6. On the fall of Constantinople, 3Iahomet carried his vic- 
torious arms over all Greece and Epirus. But death put an 
end to his career of conquest in 1481. His successor Baja- 
zet II., after carrying on various wars against the Saracens, 
Venetians, Hungarians, and others, was compelled to ab- 
dicate his crown to his ungrateful son, by whose order he 

What did he do ? What is said of the inhabitants ? Of Constantine ? 
— 4. What did he do ? How did Mahomet stimulate his soldiers ? On 
the 29th of May, what took place ? What was the fate of Constantine ? — 
5. Into what was the church of St. Sophia converted ? What did the 
public crier do ? — 6. On the fall of Constantinople, what did Mahomet 
do? 



TURKEY. 405 

was basely murdered. During the reign of Selim I., Syria 
and Egypt were conquered. His successor, Solyman I., sur- 
named the Magnificent, was the most illustrious of all the 
Turkish sovereigns. He took the island of Rhodes from the 
knights of St. John, laid siege to Vienna, reduced Bagdad, 
established his dominion over the whole of Assyria and Mes- 
opotamia, and passed many excellent laws. 

t. The reigns of his successors, Selim II. and Amurath 
III., were not marked by any event of importance. Ma- 
homet III. commenced his reign by a display of unparalleled 
barbarity. He caused nineteen of his brothers to be strangled, 
and ten of his father's wives to be drowned. The empire, 
however, continued to flourish except in the naval depart- 
ment. Othman II. invaded Poland, where he suffered a 
most signal defeat, with the loss of eighty thousand men, 
and ended his life by assassination. Amuratli lY. took 
Bagdad, and caused thirty thousand Persians to be slaugh- 
tered ; and during the reign of Mahomet lY. Candia fell 
under the Ottoman power after sustaining fifty-six assaults, 
in which the Turks lost one hundred and eighteen thousand 
men. Mahomet afterwards besieged Yienna with an army 
of two hundred thousand, from which he was compelled to 
retire in disgrace, through the skill and heroism of John 
Sobieski, King of Poland. 

8. The small but enterprising and martial republic of 
Yenice for one hundred and fifty years checked the Ottoman 
power. Since the reign of Achmet III., who was deposed 
in ItSO, the Turkish power has been on the decline. The 
reign of Mustapha III. was distinguished by a ruinous war 
with Russia, which continued, with but little intermission, 
until the reign of Selim III., in l'r92, when it was terminated 
by making important concessions to the Russian empire. 
During the reign of Selim, Bonaparte invaded Egypt, and 
took possession of Cairo and all the Delta. The year 1821 
was distinguished for the commencement of the Greek revo- 
lution, which finally resulted in the emancipation of Greece 
from the power of Turkey. 

9. We have already learned the details of the Crimean 

What was done by his successor? What is said of Solyman I.? 
What did he take? — 7. How did Mahomet III. commence his reign? 
What did Othman invade ? How did he die ? What did Amurath IV. 
take ? During the reign of Mahomet lY., what was done ? — 8. What is 
said of the republic of Venice ? For what was the reign of Mustapha 
in. distinguished? During the reign of Selim, who invaded Egypt? 
In 1821, what took place?— 9. What is remarked of the Crimean war? 



406 TURKEY. 

War, 1853-5, in which, with the aid of France and England, 
the Turks were for once victorious over Russia — an implac- 
able foe, whose hatred will never be satisfied with anything 
short of their utter destruction. The conflict with Russia, 
which began in 18*77 and terminated in the year following, 
left Turkey in a most crippled condition. The Turk is now 
the " sick man " of Europe, and his political death and burial 
are simply matters of time. He is bound to go. Nor is 
this to be regretted. The whole history of the Turks in 
Europe is the history of appalling tyranny. Even to-day 
any Turkish ruffian may with impunity assault or murder a 
Christian. A good Mahometan regards it as his right and 
duty to kill a Christian whenever he has the opportunity. 
The evidence of a Christian against a Turk is not received 
in a court of law. A Turk can legally steal Christian children, 
and forcibly convert them to Mahometanism. In short, no 
Christian has any right which a Turk is bound to respect! 

Of the conflict of 1877 ? What is the Turk now ? What is the entire 
history of the Turks in Europe? State how Turks may injure Chris- 
tians with impunity. 



BOOK XYI. 

AMERICA. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD. 

FOR. several years previous to the discovery of America, 
the attention of the Portuguese was directed towards find- 
ing a passage to the East Indies, by doubling the southern 
extremity of Africa, and then taking an easterly course, and 
it was the pursuit of this favorite object that led to the im- 
portant discovery that followed. The honor of accomplish- 
ing an exploit so sublime as that of the discovery of the 
New World belongs to Christopher Columbus, a native of 
Genoa. This illustrious man was well qualified by nature 
and education for this arduous undertaking. At the age of 
fourteen he engaged in a seafaring life. He was well versed 
in geometry, astronomy, geography, and naval science ; 
calm, persevering, and patient under the most trying cir- 
cumstances ; dignified in his deportment ; at all times per- 
fectly master of himself, and capable of eliciting the esteem, 
and commanding the obedience, of all under his direction. 

2. Columbus founded his theory on reasons from nature, 
the authorities of writers, and the testimony of navigators. 
He believed the world to be a sphere, and arriving at the 
very just conclusion that Europe, Asia, and Africa formed 
but a small portion of our earth, and that to complete the 
balance, another continent must necessarily exist, which he 
supposed to be united to Asia, and that might be reached by 
sailing west from Europe. Pieces of wood artificially carved. 

Chapter T. — 1. For several years, to what was the attention of the 
Portuguese directed ? To whom does the honor, etc., belong ? What 
is said of this illustrious man ? Give his character. — 2. On what did 
Columbus found his theory? What did he believe? What did he 
suppose ? 

407 



408 AMERICA. 

and reeds driven by a westerly wind, had been taken up in 
the ocean, west of the Madeira Islands ; trees, and on one 
occasion the bodies of two men of strange features, were 
driven upon the Azores. 

3. Convinced of the truth of his theory, the energetic Col- 
umbus was impatient to test it by experiment. Anxious 
that his native country should participate in the honor that 
might arise from so noble an enterprise, he first solicited the 
patronage of the Senate of Genoa ; but to his great morti- 
fication, they treated his theory as a visionary project. He 
next applied for assistance to the Portuguese, but was again 
refused. He then despatched his brother Bartholomew to 
the court of England, to solicit the patronage of Henry VII. ; 
but Bartholomew Columbus, having been captured by pirates, 
did not reach England for several years. 

4. In the meantime, Columbus laid his plans before Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, who gave him 
little encouragement. At length, after years of patient so- 
licitation, and after surmounting difficulties under which any 
other than Columbus would have sunk in despair, he ob- 
tained a gleam of hope from the royal favor of Isabella. 
This celebrated Queen, fired with the glory that must follow 
from the accomplishment of so grand an enterprise, and anx- 
ious to spread the Catholic religion, resolved to lend her as- 
sistance to Columbus. But her finances were in a low state, 
as the long war with the Moors — whose last stronghold had 
just been taken — had drained the tojsA coffers of Castile. 
She was ready, however, to pledge her jewels to raise the 
funds required. ''I undertake it," exclaimed this noble 
woman, "for my own crown of Castile, and I will pledge 
my jewels to raise the necessary funds!" This was the 
brightest moment in the life of Isabella the Catholic. It 
stamped her renown forever as the patroness of the discov- 
ery of the New World.* 

5. On the Itth of April, more than seven years from the 
time of his first application, an armament was fitted out, 
consisting of three small vessels, called the Santa 3Iaria,f 

* The necessary funds were finally advanced from the treasury of 
Aragon, and the Queen's jewels were saved. 
t The Holy Mary. 

What had been taken up ? What on one occasion ? — 3. Why did he 
solicit the patronage of Genoa ? Where did he next apply ? Where 
did he send his brother? — 4. In the meantime, what did Columbus 
do? At length what did he obtain? What is said of the queen? 
By whom was she relieved ?— 5. On the 17th of April, what was done? 



AMERICA. 409 

the Finta, and Nina, carrying one hundred and twenty men, 
with provisions for twelve months. Columbus, previous to 
entering on the voyage, was appointed Admiral of all the 
seas he should explore, and Governor of all the islands he 
should subdue. 

6. On the 3d of August, in the year 1492, Columbus set 
sail from the port of Palos in Spain ; and after touching at 
the Canary Islands, where he refitted his vessels, he pro- 
ceeded on his voyage, taking a westerly direction into seas 
unknown and unexplored. By the 14th of September, the 
fleet stood two hundred leagues west of the Canaries. Here 
it was observed that the magnetic needle in the compass did 
not point directly to the north star, but varied towards the 
west. The phenomenon, which had never been observed 
before, excited alarm and terror in the breasts of the Spanish 
sailors. They were then in a vast and trackless ocean, na- 
ture itself seemed to change, and their only guide was about 
to fail. 

T. Columbus, with his usual presence of mind, gave a solu- 
tion for this strange phenomenon, which served to dispel the 
fears and silence the murmurs of his companions, although it 
was not satisfactory to himself. Having proceeded on his voy- 
age for thirty days more without any prospect of land, the 
spirit of mutiny began again to manifest itself among the 
sailors, who now agreed among themselves to compel Colum- 
bus, by force, to return, while the vessels were in a condition 
to keep at sea. Never was there a more trying moment for a 
commander. Yet the great Columbus, equal to every emer- 
gency, calmed the fury of those rebellious spirits ; and, far 
from yielding to their demands, he boldly declared in a tone 
of authority, which only a hero of iron resolution can assume, 
that their threats and murmurings were in vain, that nothing 
should turn him from his course, and that with the assistance 
of Heaven he would reach the shores he sought. He was 
"alone against all." But, wonderful to relate, this surging 
mass of enraged Spaniards became suddenly hushed before 
this lone man — a foreigner whom they detested. Philosophy 
cannot explain such a phenomenon. It stands alone in his- 
tory. The finger of God was there. This singular event 

What were the names of the vessels? — 6. When did Columbus set 
sail? By the 14th of September, where was the fleet? Here, what was 
observed ? What is said of this phenomenon ? — 7. What did Columbus 
do? What again manifested itself? How did Columbus act in this 
emergency? What is said of the enraged Spaniards? Can philoso- 
phy explain such a phenomenon ? 
35 



410 AMERICA. 

happened only two days before the map of the world was 
doubled by the discovery of America. 

8. For some time previous to this, the sounding-line had 
reached the bottom, the flocks of birds increased, the air was 
more mild and warm. From all these signs Columbus con- 
cluded that land was at no great distance ; and on the even- 
ing of the 11th of October, he ordered the sails to be furled 
and a watch to be set. While standing on the forecastle, he 
beheld a light carried from place to place, and shortly after 
midnight the joyful sound of land was heard from the crew 
of the Pinta. From this moment until the return of day 
realized their expectations, no eye was closed ; all on board 
were in the deepest suspense and sleepless expectation. But 
as the morning dawned, their doubts were expelled ; a beauti- 
ful island presented itself to their view. 

9. The crew of the Pinta immediately broke forth in a 
hymn of thanksgiving to God, in which they were joined by 
those of the other vessels, in tears of joy and congratulation. 
This office of gratitude to Heaven was next followed by an 
act of retribution to their noble commander ; they threw 
themselves at his feet with the humblest acknowledgments 
of their rashness and disobedience, and besought his forgive- 
ness. As the sun arose, the boats were manned and rowed 
towards the shore, with the Spanish colors floating to the 
breeze, while at the same time martial music rent the air. 
Columbus, richly attired and with a drawn sword in his hand, 
was the first European who set his foot upon the New World. 
His men immediately followed, and falling upon their knees, 
with tears of joy they kissed the ground which they had long 
desired to behold. They next erected a crucifix, and pros- 
trating themselves before it they returned solemn thanks to 
God, whose benign hand had guided them safe through a 
thousand dangers, and conducted their voyage to so happy 
an issue. They then took solemn possession of the country 
in the name of the Spanish sovereigns. 

10. On landing, Columbus and his crews found the coast 
covered with a race of people differing from any that they 
had ever seen before. They were of a dark copper color, 

8. For some days previous what had been observed? From these 
what did Columbus conclude and order? What was heard at mid- 
night? From this moment what is said?— 9. What did the crew of the 
Pinta do? By what was this office, etc., followed? As the sun arose, 
what was done ? Who was the first to land on the New World ? What 
did his men do? What did they erect? What followed? — 10. On 
landing, what did the Spaniards find ? 



^ AMERICA. 411 

without clothing or beards, and their hair flowing loosely 
upon their shoulders. The natives were equally surprised at 
the appearance of the Spaniards, whom they considered as 
the children of the sun, their idol ; they regarded the ships 
as a species of animals, with eyes of lightning and voices of 
thunder. 

11. The first land discovered by Columbus was one of the 
Bahama islands, called by him San Salvador, or Holy Savior. 
He afterwards visited Cuba and Hayti or San Domin'go, to 
which he gave the name of Bispanio'la, and on which he 
left some of his men for the purpose of forming a colony. 
As Columbus had reached these islands by a western pas- 
sage, and believing them not far distant from the unexplored 
region of India, they were denominated the West Indies, 
and the aborigines of the country were called by the name 
of Indians, a name which they retain to the present day. 
After some time spent in exploring the country and in friend- 
ly traffic with the natives, and having collected a quantity of 
gold, Columbus set sail on his return to Spain. 

12. During the voyage he was overtaken by a violent 
storm, which continued for fifteen days, and exposed the al- 
ready shattered vessels to the most imminent danger. While 
the storm continued, Columbus, with great presence of mind, 
enclosed in a cake of wax a short account of the voyage and 
discovery, and placing it in a cask he committed it to the sea, 
with the hope that, if he should perish, it might fall into the 
hands of some navigator or be cast ashore, and thus the 
knowledge of his discovery might be preserved to the world. 
But the storm fortunately abated, and Columbus arrived 
safely in the port of Palos, from which he had sailed about 
seven months before. He was received with the loudest 
acclamations by the people, who gazed with astonishment 
on the riches and the various curiosities which he brought 
with him from the New World. At Barcelona he met with 
a gracious public reception from Ferdinand and Isabella. 

13. Columbus, in his third voyage to the new world, dis- 
covered the continent, and landed in several places on the 
northern coast of South America. But his success and the 
great marks of favor shown him by his sovereign did not 

What is said of the natives? — 11. What Avas the first land discov- 
ered ? What did he afterwards discover ? What were these islands de- 
nominated? What were the aborigines called? — 12. During the voy- 
age, what happened ? While the storm continued, what did Columbus ? 
Where did he arrive? How was he received? — 13. In his third voy- 
age, what did Columbus discover ? 



412 AMERICA. 

fail to excite envy and jealousy against him at the court 
of Spain. In consequence of various false and groundless 
charges, he was deprived of the government of Hispaniola, 
and sent home in chains. The captain of the vessel in which 
he returned, through respect to his illustrious captive, oifered 
to release him from his fetters. But Columbus replied, "No; 
I wear these chains in consequence of an order from their 
majesties the rulers of Spain. They will find me as obedient 
in this as in every other injunction. By their command I 
have been confined, and their command alone shall set me at 
liberty." 

14. On his return to Spain, a prisoner and in chains, the 
voice of indignation was heard from men of every rank. 
Even Ferdinand himself, for a season, seemed to feel the 
blush of shame. He ordered the venerable Columbus to be 
set at liberty, but ungratefully retained him in Spain until 
he appointed another person governor of Eispaniola. Such 
was the reward that the great discoverer of the western con- 
tinent received, for having devised and accomplished one of 
the noblest enterprises that ever entered into the mind of 
man. Columbus never forgot this unjust and shameful 
treatment ; and, during the remainder of his life, he carried 
about him the fetters in which he had been bound, as a me- 
morial of the ingratitude he had received, and gave orders 
that they should be buried with him in his grave. 

15. But his spirit of enterprise was not subdued. Bent 
on finding a passage to India by the west, which had been 
the leading object of his discovery, he undertook a fourth 
voyage to the new world ; during which he examined the 
coast of Darien, but suffered shipwreck on the isle of Ja- 
maica. After having endured a variety of sufferings and 
calamities, occasioned by the mutiny of his men, scarcity of 
provisions, and sickness, he again reached Spain. Shortly 
after his return, he died, at Yaladolid, on the 20th of May, 
1506, in the seventieth year of his age. His funeral, at the 
royal expense, was grand and imposing ; and on his tomb 
was placed the following inscription : "To Castile and Leon, 
Columbus has given a New World." 

16. Though the world is indebted to Columbus for the 

In consequence of false charges, what was done? What reply did 
Columbus make to the captain? — 14. What is said of him on his return 
to Spain ? What did Ferdinand do? What did Columbus do during 
the remainder of his life?— 15. What did he undertake? What did he 
suffer ? When and where did he die ? What inscription is placed on 
his tomb ? 



AMERICA. 413 

discovery of the western continent, still the honor of asso- 
ciating his name with the hemisphere he discovered has un- 
justly been wrested from him. Amer'icus Vespu'cius, a 
native of Florence, who accompanied Ojeda on a voyage to 
the New World, in 1499, discovered a part of South America 
the year after the continent had been visited by Columbus. 
Americus, on his return to Spain, wrote an account of his 
voyage, which was subsequently published ; and, singular 
to relate, the continent from him gradually received the 
name of America. Thus the name of Americus supplanted 
that of Columbus. But mankind must regret this act of 
injustice which, having received the sanction of time, it is 
now too late to redress. 

IT. The immortal achievement of Columbus, who first 
crossed the expanse of the Atlantic, and visited regions 
hitherto unknown, excited throughout Europe a lively spirit 
of enterprise and adventure. In 1519, Magellan, a Portu- 
guese navigator in the service of Spain, sailed to the western 
continent, passed the straits in the southern part of South 
America, which now bear his name, and was the first who 
entered that vast ocean called by him the Pacific, from the 
calmness of its waters. Magellan lost his life in one of the 
Philippine islands, yet his ofiicers proceeded on their voyage, 
and for the first time accomplished the circumnavigation of 
the earth. 

18. John Cabot, a Venetian by birth, under a commission 
from Henry YII. of England, accompanied by his son Se- 
bastian, sailed on a voyage of discovery in 1491, and dis- 
covered the continent of North America, a year before the 
main land of South America had been reached by Columbus. 
On the 20th of November, 149t, Vasco de Gama, employed 
by the King of Portugal, for the first time doubled the Cape 
of Good Hope, and in the following May arrived at Calicut 
on the coast of Malabar. By this he effected what had been 
the leading object of Columbus in all his enterprises, and 
what, in the preceding age, had been the great object of 
investigation, namely, to find a more expeditious and con- 
venient mode of passage to the East Indies than through 
Egypt. 

19. Cabot having proceeded on his voyage to the north 

16. From whom did the country receive the name of America? On 
his return to Spain, what did he publish? — 17. What did the achieve- 
ment of Columbus excite? In 1519, what was done? Where did Ma- 
gellan lose his life?— 18. What did John Cabot do? Who first doubled 
the Cape of Good Hope? What was effected by this? 
35* ■ 



414 AMERICA. 

in quest of a passage to India, without being able to effect 
his object, returned and sailed along the coast as far as 
Nova Scotia, erected crosses at various points as he passed, 
and took possession of the country in the name of the crown 
of England. This was the foundation of the English claim 
to North America. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE CONQUESTS OF MEXICO AND PERU.— MANNERS AND 
CUSTOMS OF THE INDIANS.— THE RISE OF THE REPUB- 
LICS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 

SEYERAL years had now elapsed since the discovery of 
America by Columbus, and no permanent settlement 
was yet made upon the continent. At an early period after 
the arrival of thfe Spaniards, they had been apprised of the 
existence of the rich and powerful empire of Mexico. The 
Governor of Cuba having conceived the design of subjugat- 
ing it to the power of Spain, fitted out a small fleet for that 
purpose, and placed it under the command of Hernando 
Cortes. On the 10th of January, 1519, Cortes sailed from 
Cuba with eleven small vessels, having on board six hun- 
dred and seventeen men, sixteen horses, six pieces of artil- 
lery, and a few muskets. Having reached the continent, he 
caused himself to be proclaimed independent of the Gov- 
ernor of Cuba (who had already revoked the commission 
entrusted to Cortes), and accountable to none but the King 
of Spain. 

2. He then laid the foundation of the colony of Vera 
Cruz, and the better to inspire his troops in their arduous 
undertaking, by cutting off all hope of returning, he caused 
the vessels to be burnt on the coast. Cortes now proceeded 
rapidly on his march to the capital of the Mexican empire, 
which he finally reached, after encountering innumerable 
difficulties. He entered the city under the assumed quality 

19. What laid the foundation of the English claim in North Amer- 
ica? 

Chapter II. — 1. Of what had the Spaniards been apprised at an 
early period ? What designs did the governor of Cuba form ? When 
did Cortes sail, and with what number of vessels ? What did he cause 
himself? — 2. What did he then do? Where did he proceed? How 
did he enter the city ? 



AMERICA. 415 

of ambassador of the Spanish monarch, and was cordially- 
received by the Emperor Montezuma, who assigned him one 
of the royal palaces as a place of residence during his stay. 

3. The killing of a few Spaniards outside the city of Mexico 
was soon made the pretext of a bold and brilliant enterprise. 
Cortes, on receiving intelligence of it, took with him a small 
band of resolute men, went to the palace of the Emperor, 
seized the person of Montezuma, and compelled him to return 
with him to his residence. Shortly after this the Mexicans 
flew to arms, and, after many sanguinary contests, the Span- 
iards were compelled to leave the capital. On one occasion, 
as Montezuma appeared on the rampart, in order to quell 
a sedition among the citizens, the unhappy monarch was 
killed by a stone thrown by one of his own subjects. He 
was immediately succeeded by his brother. 

4. But no reverse of fortune could intimidate the courage 
or abate the ardor of the bold and enterprising Cortds. Hav- 
ing obtained the assistance of a nation of Indians, who were 
tributary to the sovereign of Mexico, and being reinforced 
by a body of Spaniards, he again presented himself before 
the city, which was accordingly taken, after a siege of three 
months. The new Emperor endeavored to escape with his 
family and court, but was intercepted and taken prisoner 
before he could effect his design. 

5. Cortes received him with much courtesy. The Mexican 
ruler probably knew the person of the conqueror, for he broke 
silence by saying, *' I have done all that I could to defend 
myself and my people. I am now reduced to this state. 
You will deal with me as you please." " Fear not," replied 
the great, kind-hearted General. '' You will be treated with 
all honor. You have defended your capital like a brave 
warrior. " A Spaniard knows how to respect valor even in 
an enemy." Thus fell the great city of Mexico. Sixty 
thousand Mexicans laid down their arms on the 13th of 
August, 1521. The whole empire became a Spanish province. 
The Catholic religion was introduced. On the site of the 
famous temple of the god of war, at the capital, arose the 
stately cathedral ; and, as if to complete the triumph of the 
cross, the foundations were laid with the broken images of 
the Mexican idols. 

3. What took place? What did Cortes do? What is said of the 
Mexicans? What was the fate of Montezuma? — 4. AVhat did Cortes 
a2:ain do? — 5. W^hat did the Spaniards do? What is said of the prince? 
When did the empire of Mexico become a Spanish province ? What 
religion was introduced ? 



416 AMERICA. 

6. Shortly after the conquest of Mexico by Cortes, a simi- 
lar expedition was undertaken against the rich and powerful 
empire of Peru, by Francis Pizarro, who sailed from Pan- 
ama in 1525, and began to explore the shores of the Pacific. 
His enterprise was for some time impeded by a variety of 
causes; but in 1531, having obtained from Charles Y. of 
Spain a commission as Governor of the country, and a small 
force to enable him to conquer it, he continued his adven- 
tures, and advanced into the very heart of Peru, then an ex- 
tensive empire, governed by sovereigns styled Incas. 

7. The country at that time was divided into two hostile 
parties, by the two sons of the late monarch, who disputed 
the succession to the throne. Atahualpa, the younger, was 
finally successful; having defeated his brother in battle and 
taken him prisoner, he ordered him to be. put to death. Both 
princes had previously endeavored to gain the assistance of 
the strangers, a circumstance which Pizarro did not fail to 
render subservient to his views. Marching to meet Ata- 
hualpa, under the cover of friendship, he suddenly attacked 
the army of the unsuspecting monarch. Four thousand of 
the Peruvians were slain, and Atahualpa himself fell into the 
hands of the Spaniards. The unhappy king, in order to pro- 
cure his release, engaged to fill the room in which he was 
confined, measuring twenty-two feet in length and seventeen 
in breadth, with vessels of gold and silver, as high as he 
could reach. The contract was fulfilled on the part of the 
Peruvian sovereign, yet he did not obtain his liberty, but 
being brought to trial on a charge of treason, and as the 
murderer of his brother and the usurper of Ms crown, he 
was put to death. 

8. The entire country now submitted to the conquerors, 
who, for the better security, laid the foundation of the city 
of Lima, a short distance from the sea. The Peruvian 
monarchy being thus overthrown, discord began to prevail 
among the conquerors, and violent contentions followed. Al- 
mdg'ro, the rival of Pizarro, was taken prisoner, condemned 
and executed, and shortly afterwards Pizarro himself was 
assassinated. After his death the civil feuds continued until 

6. After this, what similar expedition was undertaken? In 1531, 
having obtained a commission as governor, what did he do? — 7. How 
was the country at that time divided ? What had both princes endeav- 
ored to obtain ? Marching to meet Atahualpa, what did Pizarro do ? 
What did the monarch engage to do to procure his release? What 
was his fate ? — 8. What is now said of the country ? What prevailed ? 
What was the fate of Almagro and Pizarro ? 



AMERICA. 417 

the year 1548, when the disasters which had so long deso- 
lated Peru were terminated, and the country reduced to a 
Spanish province by the wise and prudent measures of Pedro 
de la Gasca, who had been appointed governor. 

9. It is not known how America was first peopled. At 
the time of the invasion of the Spaniards, the Mexicans and 
Peruvians had made considerable advances towards civiliza- 
tion. Their many magnificent palaces, temples, and pyra- 
mids prove that they carried architecture to a high degree 
of perfection. They understood the arts of sculpture, mining, 
and working the precious metals ; agriculture was in a high 
state of advancement ; they had a regular system of govern- 
ment and a code of civil and religious laws. They wor- 
shipped the sun as the supreme deity ; but the religion of 
the Peruvians possessed few of those sanguinary traits that 
characterized the Mexicans, who offered human victims in 
sacrifice. In the other parts of America the natives had 
made but little progress in civilization. The following are 
a few of the characteristics which distinguish the Indians of 
North America, north of Mexico. 

10. In person, the Indians are generally tall, straight, and 
well proportioned. In complexion they are copper colored, 
with prominent cheek bones, dark eyes, and long, coarse, 
black hair. They are quick of apprehension and not want- 
ing in genius. When provoked to anger they are sullen and 
reserved ; but when determined on revenge, no danger can 
deter them, or absence cool their resentment. When cap- 
tured by an enemy they never ask for life or betray the 
least signs of fear. 

11. They had no books at the time they were first visited 
by Europeans, or any written literature, except rude hiero- 
glyphics. Education, among them, was confined to the arts 
of war, hunting, and fishing. Their language was rude, but 
sonorous, metaphorical, and energetic. Their attempts at 
architecture and manufactures were confined chiefly to the 
construction of wigwams, bows and arrows, ornaments of 
various kinds, stone hatchets, and weaving a kind of coarse 
mat from bark or hemp. Their agriculture was very limited, 
and the articles they cultivated were mainly beans, peas, 

In 1548, what took place?— 9. At the time of the invasion, what is 
said of the Mexicans and Peruvians? What did tliey understand? 
What did thev worship? What is said of the religion of the Peru- 
vians?— 10. What were the Indians in person? Their complexion? 
When provoked to anger? When captured? — 11. What is said of 
books ? Their language ? Their arts ? Their agriculture ? 

2B 



418 AMERICA. 

potatoes, and melons. Their skill in medicine was confined to 
a few simple proscriptions, but the diseases to which thev 
were subject were few compared with those which prevail in 
civilized society. 

12. The employments of the men were principally hunt- 
ing, fishing, and war. The women were slaves. They 
dressed the food, tilled the fields, and performed nearly all 
the drudgery, besides attending to their domestic concerns. 
The ordinary utensils of the Indians consisted of a hatchet 
of stone and a few shells, which they used as knives. With 
these they scalped their enemies, dressed their game, etc. 
Money among the Indians was called wampum, and con- 
sisted of small beads wrought from shells. War was the 
favorite employment of these aborigines of North America. 
When they fought in the open plain, they rushed to the 
attack with the utmost fury, at the same time uttering the 
frightful war-whoop. If peace was concluded, the chiefs 
ratified the treaty by smoking, in succession, the calumet or 
pipe of peace. 

13. The Indian system of government was exceedingly 
simple. The head of each tribe was a chief, or sachem, some- 
times so by birth, but generally chosen on account of his 
bravery, wisdom, or eloquence. His opinion, if supported 
by a council of the elders, was the only law. But he had no 
means of enforcing it on those who were unwilling to obey. 
His influence depended wholly on his personal character. 
The warriors followed him on a war-party only if they 
chose. There could be no compulsion. Proud as the Indian 
was of many things, that of which he was most proud was 
his personal freedom. The belief of the red men, however, 
was a ridiculous medley of idolatry and superstition. They 
had a multitude of manitous, or spirits — good and bad — to 
whom they paid honors. Pure, unmixed devil-worship pre- 
vailed. They also entertained some confused ideas of future 
rewards and punishments. Their chief mode of worship was 
to sing and dance around a large fire, to which they added 
prayer, and sometimes they offered in sacrifice a kind of 
sweet-scented powder, blood, and tobacco. 

14. Marriage among them was, in general, a temporary 
contract. The men chose their wives agreeably to their 

What is said of their skill in medicine?— 12. What were the em- 
ployments of the men ? Of the women ? What were their domestic 
utensils? What was war ?— 1 3. What is said of their system of govern- 
ment? Of their belief? What was their chief mode of worship? — 
14. What was marriaore among them ? 



AMERICA. 419 

fancy, and could put them away at pleasure ; but generally 
the contracts were observed with much fidelity. Polygamy 
was prevalent. Their treatment of their wives was cruel 
and oppressive ; they were considered as slaves, and treated 
as such. The rites of burial among the Indians differed but 
little throughout the continent. They generally made an 
opening in the ground, at the bottom of which the corpse, 
wrapped in skins or mats, was deposited. The weapons and 
ornaments of the deceased were buried with him, and a 
mound of earth raised over the grave. 

15. South America is a large peninsula, forming the south- 
ern portion of the New World. It is connected to North 
America by the Isthmus of Panama. The exploration and 
settlement of South America was early and rapid. In those 
enterprises Spain, of course, took the lead, and obtained the 
largest share of territory. We have seen how Pizarro estab- 
lished Spanish rule in Peru, and founded Lima as early as 
1535. Six years later, the course of the Amazon, and the 
entire coast and interior of South America, had been explored 
by bold and roving pioneers. The Portuguese took pos- 
session of Brazil, while the Spaniards extended their sway 
over all the rest of South America. Towns and cities were 
founded, the Catholic religion was introduced among the 
Indians, and as years rolled on the materials for the building 
up of new nations multiplied. But here we have no room for 
the tiresome story of colonial changes, wars, and revolutions. 

16. For centuries Spain maintained a hold on her South 
American colonies, but the wars of Napoleon I. and the 
consequent troubles in Spain brought about a condition of 
things in which the colonies, at length, struck for complete 
independence. The earliest symptoms of revolution appeared 
in 1810 in the city of Caracas, but the rebels were defeated. 
In 1813, however, General Simon BolHvar, at the head of 
an army from New Grenada, drove the Spaniards completely 
out of Venezuela. Bolivar subsequently lost this advantage, 
and for some years the tide of war fluctuated. At length, 

What was prevalent? How did they treat their wives? What is 
said of the rites of burial among the Indians? — 15. Describe South 
America. How is it connected to North America? What is said of 
its exploration and settlement? What nation obtained the largest 
share of territory ? When was Lima founded ? Six years later, what 
had been achieved ? What nation took possession of Brazil ? What is 
remarked in general of colonial progress? — 16. What first induced the 
Spanish colonies of South America to strike for independence ? What 
occurred at Caracas in 1810? What is said of Bolivar? 



420 AMERICA. 

the revolutionists gained the upper hand so far as to unite 
Venezuela and New Grenada into a republic, to which w^as 
given the name of Columbia. The first congress of the 
republic was held in May, 1821. Bolivar was elected Pres- 
ident, and, in 1823, the independence of Columbia was rec- 
ognized by the United States, and soon after by the chief 
nations of Europe. 

n. In the meantime the various provinces of South Amer- 
ica were not idle spectators. Everywhere the tocsin of in- 
dependence was sounded, and, after many severe and san- 
guinary struggles, the republics of Peru, Chili, Venezuela, 
Ecuador, Bolivia, Uruguay, Paraguay, and the Argentine 
Republic were organized. Wars and revolutions, it is true, 
have in many instances retarded their progress and pros- 
perity ; but they have had to learn the difficult art of govern- 
ing themselves. These young and flourishing nations have 
a great future before them. The people are Catholics. 

18. Brazil, the largest and most important nation in South 
America, was settled by the Portuguese in 1531. It became 
a flourishing colony. When Napoleon directed an army to 
take possession of Portugal, in 1807, the royal family escaped 
to Brazil. King John YI. at once turned his attention to 
the improvement of this magnificent colony, and opened its 
ports to the commerce of all nations. He was so well pleased 
with his new home that he even refused to return to Portu- 
gal when that country was freed from invaders. On the 
overthrow of Napoleon, Brazil was raised to the rank of a 
Kingdom. It became independent in 1822. It is an empire 
— the only one in America. The executive authority is 
vested in the Emperor, who, besides being aided by a Coun- 
cil of State, must act through responsible ministers. The 
Legislature consists of two Houses, which sit four months 
every year. The Brazilians are Catholics. The present 
Emperor is Dom Pedro II., a grandson of the exiled King 
of Portugal, John YI. He is one of the most able and 
accomplished rulers of our time. 

What name was given to the new republic ? When was its first con- 
gress held? When was Columbia recognized by the United States? — 

17. What is remarked of the various provinces of South America? 
Name the other republics of South America. What have interfered 
with their progress? What religion is professed in these republics? — 

18. When was Brazil first settled and by whom? What happened in 
1807? What did King John do? When did Brazil become indepen- 
dent? Is Brazil a republic? In whom is the executive authority? 
Of what does the vested legislature consist ? Of what religion are the 
Brazilians? Who is the present Emperor? 



AMERICA. 421 

CHAPTER III. 

CANADA, VIRGINIA, AND NEW YORK. 

THE French were among the first adventurers in North 
America. As early as the year 1504 they had visited 
the banks of Newfoundland, and in 1524 Francis I., of 
France, willing to share with his neighbors a portion of the 
New World, commissioned Verraza'no on a voyage of dis- 
covery. This navigator explored a great part of the shores 
of North America. About ten years after this James Car- 
tier, under a similar commission from the King of France, 
sailed to the New World, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 
and took possession of the country in the name of his sove- 
reign, and called it New France. This name was subse- 
quently changed to that of Canada. 

2. In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, under a commission from 
Queen Elizabeth, of England, arrived on our coast, entered 
Pamlico Sound, and proceeding to Roanoke Island, near the 
mouth of Albemarle Sound, took possession of the country 
for the crown of England. On his return, he gave so flatter- 
ing an account of the beauty and fertility of the country, 
that Elizabeth bestowed on it the name of Virginia, as a 
memorial that it had been discovered during the reign of a 
virgin queen. Several attempts to form a settlement in Vir- 
ginia were made by Sir Walter Raleigh. He despatched 
some small vessels, under the command of Richard Gran- 
ville, carrying one hundred and eighty adventurers, who 
were landed on the Isle of Roanoke ; but the colonists, de- 
luded by the prospect of finding mines of the precious metals, 
neglected the cultivation of the soil. They were, in conse- 
quence, reduced to the utmost distress by famine ; many of 
their number returned to England with Sir Francis Drake, 
while others perished with disease, or were destroyed by the 
Indians. 

3. This unsuccessful attempt withdrew for some time the 
attention of the English from these distant regions. In 1G02, 



Chapter III. — 1. Who were among the first adventurers in North 
America ? In 1524, what was done by Francis I. ? Who next sailed 
to the new world? What was the country called? — 2. In 1584, who 
arrived in America ? On his return what did he give ? What is said 
of his attempts to form a settlement? Of the colonists ? — 3. In 1602, 
what took place ? 
36 



422 AMEKICAN COLONIES. 

however, Bartholomew Gosnold sailed from England, and 
discovered Cape Cod, which name he gave it on account of 
the number of codfish caught near it. From this period we 
find that the spirit of adventure again revived. In 1606, 
James I. of England granted letters-patent, an exclusive 
right or privilege, to the London and Plymouth Companies, 
by which they were authorized to possess and occupy all 
the territory lying between the 34th and 45th degrees of 
north latitude, which at that time was included under the 
common name of Virginia. To the former company was 
assigned the section of country included between the 41st 
and 34th degrees of south latitude, called South Virginia ; 
and to the latter that part of the territory lying to the north, 
called North Virginia. 

4. Under this patent, the London Company, in 1607, sent 
out a vessel commanded by Captain Newport, and carrying 
one hundred and five adventurers. After a tedious voyage 
of four months, the colonists arrived at the mouth of the 
Chesapeake Bay, and sailed some distance up the Powhatan, 
now called the James River, where they built a fort, and 
laid the foundation of a town, which, in honor of their king, 
they called Jamestown. The government of the colony was 
framed by the London Company, and was administered by a 
council of seven persons, with a president chosen from among 
their own number. 

5. The name of the first president was Wingfield, but the 
most distinguished person in the council was the celebrated 
Captain John Smith, who, from the active part which he 
took in the transactions of the new settlement, has been 
styled " Father of the Colony." The life and actions of 
this extraordinary man resemble the deeds of a hero of 
romance. In the early part of his career he had the com- 
mand of a body of cavalry in the Austrian army, and, dur- 
ing a contest with the Turks, was taken prisoner, and sent 
as a slave to Constantinople, from which he afterwards ob- 
tained his release and returned to England. His romantic 
and enterprising spirit led him to engage in an expedition 
to the New World, and, by his superior abilities, the colony 
was repeatedly rescued from the brink of ruin. 

6. Unfortunately for the colonists, they were soon involved 

In 1606, what was granted bv James? What was assigned to the 
fo'rmer? To the latter? — 4. What did the London Company do in 
1607? Where did they arrive? What town did they commence? — 
5. Who was the most distinguished person ? In early life what had 
he? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 423 

in hostilities with the natives, whose hatred of the Eng- 
lish was occasioned by the cruel treatment they had previ- 
ously experienced from Sir Richard Granville, who burnt 
an entire Indian village and destroyed their corn, in retalia- 
tion for their stealing a silver cup. The singular adventures 
of Captain Smith form a conspicuous portion of the history 
of the colony. On one occasion, while exploring the country, 
he was taken prisoner by a band of two hundred Indians ; 
but, charmed with his valor and the various arts which he 
used to astonish or please them, they released him from cap- 
tivity. After this he was again taken by a party of three 
hundred, who led him in triumph to Powhat' an, their king. 
The sentence of death was immediately pronounced against 
him, and he was conducted to the place of execution. His 
head was laid upon a stone, and the savages, with uplifted 
clubs, were about to despatch their victim, when Pocalion'- 
tas, the favorite daughter of Powhatan, threw herself be- 
tween the prisoner and the executioners, and by her tears 
and entreaties prevailed on her father to recall the sentence. 
Her prayers were heard, and Smith was set at liberty. 

T. In 1609, Powhatan had concerted measures for the 
destruction of the colony ; but Pocahontas, who had always 
manifested a friendly disposition towards the English, visited 
Jamestown alone, on a dark and stormy night, and disclosed 
to Captain Smith the designs of her father ; the colony was 
by this means saved from destruction. Pocahontas, during 
a subsequent visit to Jamestown, was there detained, and 
her father, who was devotedly attached to his daughter, con- 
cluded a treaty with the English on their own terms. Poca- 
hontas was afterwards married, with the consent of her 
father, to Rolfe, a young planter of a respectable family. 
After their nuptials, which were celebrated with great pomp, 
Rolfe and the princess sailed for England, where she was 
instructed in the Christian religion, and publicly baptized. 
She died at Gravesend, in the twenty-second year of her 
age, leaving one son, from whom are descended some of the 
most respectable families of Virginia. 

8. During the first year the colonists suffered severely 
from want of provisions and from sickness, which in a few 

6. How was the antipathy of the natives to the English occasioned ? 
Relate the adventures of Captain Smith. — 7. In 1609, what was con- 
certed ? How was it prevented ? What is said of Pocahontas on a sub- 
sequent visit to Jamestown ? To whom was she married ? Where did 
they sail for ? Where did she die ? — 8. From what did the colonists 
sufier? 



424 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

months carried off half their number ; but by the arrival of 
new adventurers, the population of the colony, at the close 
of the year, amounted to about two hundred persons. Dur- 
ing the year 1609, Captain Smith, in consequence of an in- 
jury he received by the accidental explosion of gunpowder, 
was obliged to return to England for medical aid. His ab- 
sence was a severe loss to the colony. In consequence of a 
waste of provisions, a most distressing famine followed. 
The period was long known by the name of the starving 
times. So dreadful was its effect, that in the space of six 
months the colonists were reduced from nearly five hundred 
to sixty. The small remnant that survived were so dis- 
heartened by these disasters that they resolved to abandon 
the settlement, and return to England. From this they 
were prevented by the timely arrival of Lord Delaioare, 
who had been appointed Governor, with one hundred and 
fifty men, and a large supply of provisions. Through his 
exertions they were induced to remain, and their number 
being increased by new arrivals, the condition of the colony 
soon began to assume a prosperous appearance. 

9. The planters were men generally destitute of families. 
They had emigrated with a prospect of obtaining wealth, 
and expected eventually to return to their native country. 
But with a view of attaching them to the new settlement, 
and of rendering their residence permanent in the colony, 
an expedient was devised of supplying them with wives. 
Accordingly, a number of unmarried women were sent over 
from England, to be sold to such as were desirous to pur- 
chase. The price of a wife was at first one hundred pounds 
of tobacco ; but as the number diminished, it was raised to 
one hundred and fifty pounds. At the time, the price of 
tobacco was three shillings a pound. 

10. The year 1620 is rendered memorable for the intro- 
duction of negro slavery into America. A Dutch vessel 
from the coast of Guinea sailed up the James River, having on 
board about twenty negroes, who were sold as slaves to the 
planters of Virginia. And thus began a shameful institution, 
which it took nearly two centuries and a half and a terrible 
civil war to abolish. 

What happened during the year 1609 ? In consequence of waste of 
provisions, what followed? In six months, to what number were the 
colonists reduced ? What did they resolve ? How were they prevented ? 
— 9. Who Avere the planters ? With a view of attaching them to the set- 
tlement, what expedient was devised ? What was the price of a wife ? — 
10. For what is the vear 1620 rendered memorable? In what manner? 



AMEEICAN COLONIES. 425 

The colony had enjoyed, for some time, a great degree of 
prosperity. In 1623, however, it experienced a stroke that 
nearly proved fatal to its existence. Powhatan died in 
1618, and was succeeded by his son, who did not inherit the 
friendly disposition of his father towards the English. A 
deliberate plan for the annihilation of the colony at one blow 
was concerted, and succeeded to a fearful extent. On the 
twenty-second of March, while the colonists were engaged 
in their usual occupations, the Indians fell upon them, spar- 
ing neither age nor sex, and in one fatal hour three hundred 
and forty-seven persons fell victims to their cruelty. 

11. This treachery of the Indians was followed by a war 
of extermination, during which the colonists indulged in acts 
of atrocity little inferior to those by which* they had been 
visited. They fell upon the Indians at the approach of har- 
vest, when they knew the attack would prove most fatal, 
destroyed their crops of corn, and, in their fury, murdered all 
who came in their way, or drove them into the forest, where 
so many perished with hunger that some of the tribes nearest 
to the colony were annihilated. 

12. In 1624, the London Company, which had been so 
active in establishing a settlement in Virginia, was dissolved 
by an arbitrary act of King James I., who invested the 
government of the colony in the crown, and appointed a 
governor, with a council of twelve persons, to aid him in 
the administration. The prosperity of the colony was sub- 
sequently retarded during the arbitrary administration of 
Sir John Harvey; but in 1639, Sir William Berkley, a 
man of superior abilities, was appointed governor, when it 
again began to flourish. During the revolution in England, 
which terminated in the execution of Charles, the colonists 
preserved their loyalty to the King. In 1651, the common- 
wealth, under Cromwell, took vigorous measures for the re- 
duction of the colony. Berkley made a spirited resistance ; 
but being obliged to yield to a superior force, he retired from 
public life, and Mathews was appointed governor by Crom- 
well. 

13. On the death of Mathews, the spirit of opposition was 
again manifested. The colonists threw off their allegiance 

In 1623, what deliberate plan was formed? What took place on the 
22d of March ?— 11. By what was this followed ? When did they fall 
upon the Indians? — 12. In 1624, what took place? How was the pros- 

{)erity of the colony again retarded ? During the revolution in Eng- 
and, what is said of the colonists? In 1651, what took place? — 13. On 
the death of Mathews, what did the colonists do ? 
36* 



426 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

to the commonwealth, recalled Berkley from his retirement, 
erected the royal standard, and proclaimed Charles II., son 
of the late King, as their lawful sovereign. Fortunately for 
the colonists, the restoration of Charles, which shortly after- 
wards took place, preserved them from the chastisement to 
which their previous declaration in his favor had exposed 
them. In 1676, towards the close of Berkley's adminis- 
tration, the restriction imposed on trade by the King, occa- 
sioned considerable discontent in the colony, and finally gave 
rise to an insurrection, known by the name of Bacon^s Re- 
hellion, so called from the name of its leader. During the 
progress of this unfortunate insurrection, the country was 
given up to pillage, Jamestown was burnt, and all the hor- 
rors of civil war continued to rage, until they were termi- 
nated by the death of Bacon. 

14. The territory now comprising the Middle States of 
our Republic was originally settled by the Dutch and 
Swedes. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman, in the 
service of the East India Company of Holland, on a voyage 
in search of a north-west passage to India, touched at Long 
Island, and sailed up the river which now bears his name. 
The right of discovery being thus acquired, and the favor- 
able report of the country, induced a company of Dutch ad- 
venturers to attempt a settlement on the Hudson River about 
the year 1613. They built a fort near the present site of 
Albany, called Fort Orange, and another with some few 
trading houses on Manhattan Island, where the city of New 
York now stands, and named the latter settlement New Am- 
sterdam, while the whole country was called New Nether- 
lands. 

15. The Swedes had already made a settlement on the 
Delaware River, and held possession of the territory until 
its final subjugation by the Dutch colonists of New Nether- 
lands, under their enterprising governor, Stuyvesant. The 
extension of the New England settlements occasioned a 
series of disputes and contests with their neighbors in New 
Netherlands. In 1664, Charles II., who had been restored 
to the throne of his father, forgetful of the friends who had 
given him a shelter during his exile, sought every pretext 

In 1676, what did the restrictions on trade occasion and give rise? 
How was it terminated? — 14. By w^hom was the territory comprising 
the Middle States settled? In 1609, what took place? Where did 
they build a fort? What did they call the settlements? — 15. Where 
had the Swedes settled? In 1664, what did Charles do? What did he 
claim, and to whom did he convey it ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 427 

for a dispute with Holland. Among other things, he as- 
serted a claim to the colony possessed by that country in 
America, and accordingly conveyed it to his brother, James, 
the Duke of York. The Duke made immediate preparations 
for carrying the King's grant into effect, and for that pur- 
pose Colonel Nichols was sent out with a fleet, having on 
board a considerable force. After touching at Boston, he 
sailed for New Amsterdam, and, anchoring before the place, 
he demanded its surrender. Stuyvesant, the Dutch Gov- 
ernor, after some opposition, was obliged to yield to the Eng- 
lish ; and the whole territory thus became subject to the 
British crown, and the country, in honor of the Duke, was 
called New York. 



I 



CHAPTER ly. 

THE NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS. 

N 160*7, about the same time that the colonists in Virginia 
laid the foundation of Jamestown, a settlement was com- 
menced on the Kennebec River, under the direction of the 
Plymouth Company ; but owing to successive misfortunes, 
it was abandoned for the present. In 1614, the country was 
again visited by Captain Smith, so celebrated in the history 
of Virginia. He examined the coast from the Penobscot River 
to Cape Cod, and on his return, prepared a map of the coun- 
try, to which he gave the name of New England. 

2. In 1620, a patent was granted by King James I. to Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges and others, called the Council of Ply- 
mouth, for the purpose of settling a colony in New England. 
Their patent included all the territory between the fortieth 
and forty-eighth degrees of north latitude. During the same 
year in which the patent was obtained, the first permanent 
settlement in New England was commenced at Plymouth, 
Massachusetts, by a body of Puritans,"^ also known by the 

* The Protestant church of England, having rebelled against the 
authority of the Holy See, persecuted with almost equal severity the 
other Protestant sects and the Catholics. The name of Puritans Avas 

What did the Duke of York do ? What is said of Stuyvesant ? 

Chapter IV. — 1. In 1607, where was a settlement commenced? By 
whom was the country visited in 1614? On his return, what did he do? 
— 2. In 1620, what was granted? During the same year, what was 
commenced at Plymouth? 



428 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

name of Brownists, from the name of the founder of their 
sect. 

3. The Puritans, who had suffered continual persecution 
in England, on account of their dissent from the tenets of 
the established church, had taken refuge in Holland, under 
the charge of their minister, John Robinson ; but not find- 
ing their new residence agreeable, from various causes, they 
resolved to seek an asylum from oppression by removing to 
the wilds of America. After having experienced many de- 
lays and disappointments, a patent was obtained under the 
seal of the London Company, assigning to them a tract of 
land within the limits of the Yirginia charter. 

4. On the morning of the 22d of July, 1620, Robinson, 
their minister, kneeling in prayer on the sea-shore at Delft- 
haven, consecrated the embarcation of the Pilgrims. They 
touched at Southampton, in England, from which place they 
sailed on the 5th of August ; but before proceeding far they 
were obliged to return, in order to repair the smaller of their 
vessels, called the Speedwell^ which they were finally com- 
pelled to abandon, and to prosecute their voyage in the May- 
flower. At length, on the 6th of September, they sailed 
from Plymouth, in England, for the Hudson River ; but by 
the treachery of the captain, who is supposed to have been 
bribed by the Dutch, they were carried much further to the 
north, and, after a stormy passage, they came in sight of 
Cape Cod. 

5. After some weeks spent in searching for a suitable place 
to land, during which they were exposed to incredible suffer- 
ings from the inclemency of the season, the Mayflower was 
safely moored in a beautiful harbor, to which, in grateful re- 
membrance of the last port they left in England, they gave 
the name of Plymouth. On the morning of the 20th of De- 
cember, 1620, after imploring the divine assistance, the Pil- 
grims, to the number of one hundred and one, landed upon 
the rock of Plymouth. The spot on which their first steps 
rested is still held in deep veneration by their descendants, and 
the day of their landing is yet celebrated with enthusiasm. 

given to a party of Protestants who refused to follow the established 
form of worship, because they said it retained too many of the ceremonies 
of Rome. — Hassard. 

3. Where had the Puritans taken refuge ? What did they resolve ? 
—4. On the 22d of July, 1620, what took place? Where did they 
touch? What were they finally compelled to do? When and from 
what place did they sail ? — 5. Where was the Mayflower moored ? On 
the 20th of December, what was done ? What is said of the spot ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 429 

6. Though the Pilgrims had succeeded in landing, their 
sufferings and distress were only about to commence. After 
a long and tedious voyage, they found themselves cast upon 
an unknown and hostile coast; exposed to all the rigors of a 
New England winter, without a roof to shelter them from 
the storm. Their supply of provisions was limited, and to 
fill up the measure of their sufferings, they w^ere visited by 
a distressing sickness. By these united calamities, in three 
months after their landing, they were reduced to nearly one- 
half of their original number. John Carver, the first Governor, 
died in March, and William Bradford was chosen to succeed 
him. The election of the Governor took place annually, and 
at first he had but one assistant. The number of assistants 
was afterwards increased to five, and at length to seven. 

*7. With a desire to conform to the simplicity of the apos- 
tolic time, the Pilgrims at first held all their property in com- 
mon. This w^as one of the causes of scarcity that for some 
time prevailed in the country. In the spring of 1623, each 
family was allowed a piece of ground for its cultivation, and 
after the harvest of that year, no general want of provisions 
was experienced. For the defence of the colony against the 
hostilities of the natives, a military organization was formed, 
and Captain Miles Standish, a man of considerable courage, 
was appointed to the command. In March, 1621, they re- 
ceived a friendly visit from Samoset, the chief of the Wam'- 
jyanoags, who gave them a cordial welcome, and in the name 
of his tribe allowed them to retain possession of the soil which 
they occupied, since there was not one of the original possess- 
ors then living to, claim it. 

8. From hira they obtained important information respect- 
ing the country, and learned that a short time previous to 
their arrival, a dreadful pestilence had carried off almost all 
the Indians in the vicinity. In the same month, Massasoit', 
the most pow^erful chief in that region, and from whom the 
name of Massachu'setts is derived, paid a visit to the colony, 
and entered into a league of friendship with the settlers, w^hich 
w^as strictly observed for upwards of fifty years. 

9. The colony increased but slowl}^ and at the end of ten 
years the population did not exceed three hundred. In 1628, 

6. What is said of the pilgrims? Of their supply of provisions? 
By these calamities, to wliat were they reduced ? Who was their first 
governor? — 7. With a desire to conform, etc., what did the pilgrims 
do? In 1623, what was each family allowed? In March, 1621, what 
did they receive? — 8. From him what did they obtain? In the same 
month who paid a visit to the colony ? 



430 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

the colony of Massachu^ setts Bay was commenced by a com- 
pany of adventurers under John Endicott, who formed a set- 
tlement at Naumkeag, to which he g-ave the scripture name 
of Salem. It might readily be supposed that the men who 
had bled under the lash of persecution for their religious opin- 
ions, would have learned to respect those opinions in others. 
While we commend that noble spirit which enabled them to 
quit their native soil, and brave a thousand dangers in a hos- 
tile land, in order that they might enjoy the unrestrained 
exercise of their religious principles, we cannot refrain from 
disavowing that spirit of intolerance which they exercised 
among themselves. 

10. Some of the colonists retained a high veneration for 
the ritual of the Protestant Church of England, and refusing 
to conform to the colonial establishment, they assembled to 
a separate place of worship. Endicott called before him two 
of the principal offenders and sentenced them to banishment. 
They were sent home by the first vessel returning to England. 
In 1630, another company of adventurers, over fifteen hun- 
dred in number, under John Winthrop, who was appointed 
Governor, arrived in Massachusetts and commenced the set- 
tlement of Charlestown, Boston, and other places in that vi- 
cinity. At the first general court held at Charlestown, a law 
was passed, declaring that none should be free, or have any 
share in the government, except those who had been received 
as members of the church. 

11. In the spring of 1623, the settlement of New Hamp- 
shire was commenced at Dover and Portsmouth, by persons 
sent out under the patronage of Sir Ferdinand Gorges and 
John Mason, to whom the country had been granted. These 
settlements were united to Massachusetts in 1641, and re- 
mained a part of that colony until 1678, when New Hamp- 
shire obtained a separate government. In 1635, the colony 
oi , Connecticut was commenced by a few families, with their 
favorite minister Hooker, who left Massachusetts, and after a 
fatiguing march through the wilderness, settled on the west 
side of the Connecticut River, and laid the foundation of 
Windsor and Wethersfield. 

12. Roger Williams, a minister at Salem, having been ban- 

9. In 1 628, what colony was commenced ? What might be supposed ? 
— 10. What did some of the colonists retain? What did Endicott do? 
In 1630, what took place? At the first general court at Charlestown, what 
law was passed? — 11. In 1623, what settlement was commenced? By 
whom? When and by whom was Connecticut commenced? — 12. What 
is related of Koger Williams ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 431 

ished from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, 
with a few companions commenced the settlement of Rhode 
Island,, on the site where the city of Providence now stands, 
which name they gave to the place in grateful acknowledg- 
ment of the divine protection. About two years after this, 
Coddington, having been also banished from Massachusetts, 
with seventy-six others, for holding opinions which were 
deemed erroneous by the colonial establishment, purchased 
from the Indians, Aqiietneck, a fertile island in Narragan'seM 
Bay, and named it Rhode Island, under which title the pre- 
vious settlement by Roger Williams was afterwards included. 

13. In 1644, Williams visited England as agent of the set- 
tlers, and obtained from the English Parliament, shortly after 
the commencement of the civil war, a free charter of incor- 
poration for Providence and Rhode Island plantations. The 
charter was confirmed and its constitutional powers enlarged 
in the reign of Charles II. By this instrument it was or- 
dered, " that none were to be molested for any difference of 
opinion in matters of religion ;" yet the very first assembly 
convened under its authority had the bigotry and injustice 
to exclude Catholics from voting at elections, and from every 
office in the government. 

14. The friendly intercourse which had for some time ex- 
isted between the colonists and the natives, began by degrees 
to be interrupted. The Indians in the vicinity of Massachu- 
setts Bay were few and unwarlike, and having received a 
stipulated compensation for the laud from the early settlers, 
they evinced no disposition for hostility ; but Connecticut 
and Rhode Island had to contend with numerous and pow- 
erful tribes. Among these, the Narragan' setts and Pe'quods 
were the most formidable. The latter having sent a depu- 
tation to their neighbors the Narragan setts, requested them 
to forget for a season their mutual animosities, and to co- 
operate in expelling the common enemy from the country. 
But the envious Narragansetts considering this as a favora- 
ble opportunity for weakening or totally destroying a power- 
ful rival, discovered their hostile intentions to the Governor 
of Massachusetts, and united in alliance with the colonists 
against them. 



Two years after this, what did Coddington do?— 13. In 1644, what 
did Williams do and obtain ? By this instrument, what was ordered ? 
Yet what was done by the first assembly? — 14. What is said of the In- 
dians in the vicinity? Which were the most formidable tribes? What 
did the Pequods request ? What did the envious Narragansetts do? 



432 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

15. The Pequods had pitched their camp in the middle of 
a swamp, near the head of Mystic River, and fortified it with 
palisades ; but the colonists, under Captain Mason, marched 
to the place unperceived, and were about to enter the camp 
through a pass, which by some unaccountable neglect was left 
open, when the alarm of their approach was given by a faith- 
ful dog. In a moment the warriors flew to arms and pre- 
pared to repel the attack ; but in a few moments more the 
wigwams in which the Indians slept were enveloped in flames. 
The carnage was dreadful. Aroused from their slumbers by 
the discharge of musketry, the affrighted Indians rushed in 
consternation from their burning tenements. As they came 
forth they were received by the swords of the enemy ; if they 
attempted to escape by scaling the palisades, they were met 
by a shower of balls. Many, afraid to venture out, perished 
in the flames ; while others, recoiling from the deadly weap- 
ons of the foe, rushed back into the devouring element and 
shared the fate of their companions. In a few minutes five 
or six hundred lay gasping in their blood or were silent in 
the arms of death. Those that were captured, above the num- 
ber of two hundred, were either sold as slaves abroad or re- 
duced to servitude by the English at home. So complete was 
the extermination, that in a few months the nation of Pe- 
quods was entirely destroyed, and even their very name was 
no longer heard. 

16. The danger to which they were exposed by the en- 
croachments of foreign enemies and domestic hostilities, in- 
duced the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
Connecticut, and New Haven to enter into an alliance for their 
mutual defence, under the title of the United Colonies of New 
England, A. d. 1643. This confederation, which was regu- 
lated by two delegates from each colony, subsisted with but 
little alteration until their charters were annulled by Charles 
II. As many of the early settlers were men of talents and 
education, they gave their earliest attention to the interest 
of learning and to the establishment of schools. In 1638, a 
few years after the settlement of Massachusetts, Ear'vard 
University, the oldest institution of learning in the country, 
was founded at Cambridge. 

15. Where had the Pequods pitched their camp ? What did the colo- 
nists do ? Describe the slaughter that followed. What was done with 
those who were captured ? — 16. What did their danger induce the colo- 
nists to do ? How long did this confederation subsist ? To what did 
they give their earliest attention? When was Harvard University 
founded ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 433 

17. Although the colonists of New England possessed 
many excellent traits of character, they were not, however, 
without serious failings. While they claim our admira- 
tion for their enterprise, for their love of liberty and atten- 
tion to the interests of education, we are compelled to regard 
their misguided zeal in matters of religion with mingled feel- 
ings of sorrow and disapprobation. They were bigots. In 
1656, a number of unoffending Quakers, flying from perse- 
cution at home, sought an asylum among their Christian 
brethren in New England ; but the novelty of their mode 
of worship greatly offended the ministers of the established 
church. They were imprisoned and banished at the first op- 
portunity. A law was then passed prohibiting the emigra- 
tion of Quakers to Massachusetts ; and forbidding their re- 
turn, in case of banishment, under the penalty of death. In 
consequence of these severe proscriptions, several of these 
unoffending people were hanged. 

18. In Connecticut the Quakers were treated with little 
less severity. A law was passed against them, subjecting 
the offender to imprisonment at hard labor, and the tongue 
to be pierced through with a red-hot iron. Catholics were 
treated with equal ferocity. In 164Y, the Legislature of 
Massachusetts enacted that Jesuits entering the colony 
should be expelled, and if they returned — hanged. It was 
the same in Connecticut, where any one might seize a Cath- 
olic priest even without a warrant. These instances of in- 
tolerance, which have cast a blot upon the memory of the 
Pilgrim Fathers, are not cited to wound the feelings of their 
descendants, but simply to remind them that it is their duty 
to avoid the repetition of these sad errors ; that it is incum- 
bent on all to discountenance religious intolerance in every 
form ; and that the same ascendency that then prevailed over 
the civil authorities might, perhaps, even now plunge society 
into that unhappy state, which we are called to contemplate 
with so much regret. 

19. After the termination of the Pequod war, the New 
England settlements enjoyed a long continuance of peace, 
during which they greatly increased in wealth and popula- 
tion. The treatment, however, which the Indians had gen- 
erally received from the early English adventurers, had given 

17. While they claim onr admiration, what are we compelled? In 
1656, what took place? What law was passed? — 18. In Connecticut, 
what law was passed? How were Catholics treated? Why are these 
instances of intolerance mentioned ?-=^l 9. After the Pequod war, what 
did New England enjoy ? 

37 2C 



434 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

them great reason to regard the Europeans with an eye of 
jealousy and distrust; and it must be confessed that the col- 
onists, in their proceedings with regard to the natives, were 
often directed by principles of cruelty and injustice, as a ref- 
erence to the records of those times will clearly prove. In 
1675, the peace which long subsisted was interrupted, and the 
colonists found themselves involved in a destructive v/ar with 
Philip, king of the Wam/panoags, whose principal residence 
was at Mount Hope, Rhode Island. 

20. Philip, equally eminent for his warlike character and 
undaunted courage, was the most formidable enemy ever en- 
countered by the colonists. Having spent four years in ma- 
turing the plan of an extensive conspiracy, which had for its 
object the utter extermination of the English, he commenced 
hostilities, and by means of his alliances was able to bring 
four thousand warriors into the field. Massachusetts, Con- 
necticut, and Plymouth united against him. The war was 
commenced with great energy and spirit on both sides, and 
for some time conducted with equal success. In the great bat- 
tle known by the name of the Swamp Fight, two hundred and 
thirty of the colonists were killed, while one thousand of the 
Indian warriors are supposed to have perished and over five 
hundred of their wigwams were burned. At length an end 
was put to these disasters, in 1616, by the death of Philip, 
who was shot by one of his own men, who had joined a party 
of the English under the famous Captain Benjamin Church. 

21. At the commencement of this unhappy war, the Eng- 
lish population amounted to nearly sixty thousand persons, 
of whom six hundred had fallen in battle during the conflict, 
besides a much greater number of women and children, who 
were led into a miserable captivity by the Indians. Scarcely 
a family or individual remained who had not to mourn the 
loss of a relative or friend. After the termination of this 
conflict, however, the New England colonies were freed from 
the hostilities of the natives until the war with the French, 
who employed the Indians as auxiliaries. 

22. About the year 1692, the people of the colonies were 
thrown into the utmost consternation by the supposed power 
of witchcraft. Mather, a minister of New England, who 
was a firm believer in such ridiculous stories, relates a num- 

In 1675, what took place? — 20. What is said of Philip? How was 
the war conducted ? How many fell on both sides in the Swamp Fight ? 
What was the end of Philip? — 21. At the commencement of the war, 
what is said of the English? Wliat had everv familv to mourn? — 
22. What took place in 1692? 



A M K R, I C A X COLONIES. 435 

ber of those singular events, which at the present time are 
more amusing than important. Several laws were made 
against witchcraft, and not until twenty persons, of both 
sexes, had been executed, did the frenzy begin to decline. 



CHAPTER y. 

MARYLAND AND ITS CATHOLIC FOUNDERS. 

THE founder of Maryland was Sir George Calvert, Lord 
Baltimore, an enterprising Catholic, who was distin- 
guished as a statesman, and had held the office of Secretary of 
State in the reign of James I. of England. With a view of 
forming in America an asylum for himself and his sorely per- 
secuted brethren, he sailed to Yirginia about the year 1631 ; 
but meeting an unwelcome reception there on account of his 
religion, he fixed his attention upon a region beyond the Po- 
tomac, and finding it unoccupied and well adapted to his pur- 
pose, he immediately returned to England and obtained of 
Charles I. a grant of the territory. From Henrietta Maria, 
the consort of Charles, the country was called Maryland. 

2. Before the patent was completed. Sir George died, and 
the grant was transferred to his eldest son, Cecilius Calvert, 
who inherited the titles of his father. Preparations were im- 
mediately made for the settlement of a colony. Remaining in 
England himself, Cecilius Calvert appointed his brother Leon- 
ard Calvert as Governor of the intended settlement. On the 
22d of November, in the year 1633, emigrants to the num- 
ber of about two hundred, among whom were two Jesuits — 
Fathers Andrew White and John Altham — set sail from the 
Isle of Wight in two small vessels, the Ark and Dove, and 
after a tedious passage arrived in March of the following 
year on the shores of the Chesapeake. Following the exam- 
ple of Columbus, these Catholic colonists immediately erected 
a cross and returned thanks to God, who had conducted the 

What laws were made ? 

Chapter V. — 1. Who was the founder of Maryland? Why did he 
remove to America? Where did he next fix his attention? From 
whom was the country named ? — 2. What happened before the patent 
was complete? Who was appointed governor? When and where did 
they sail from ? W'hat were the names of the vessels? What did they 
immediately do? 



436 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

voyage to so happy an issue, and then took possession of the 
country in the name of their sovereign. After having pur- 
chased the land from the natives, they commenced the build- 
ing of the town of St. Mary, which for many years remained 
the capital of the colony. 

3. The leading features of policy adopted by the founders 
of this colony, claim our warmest admiration. Their inter- 
course with the Indian tribes was marked by the strictest 
justice and humanity. At the same time the unrestrained 
exercise in matters of religion, granted to the professors of 
every creed, reflects the highest honor upon the memory of 
Lord Baltimore and his benevolent associates. Whilst the 
Episcopalians in Virginia would suffer no other form of wor- 
ship among them except that of the Church of England, and 
whilst the Puritans of New England punished with fines, 
tortures, and exile all those who differed from their creed, 
the Catholics of Maryland, transcending the prescriptive 
principles of the age, extended their arms and invited among 
them the victims of intolerance from every clime.* 

4. The tranquillity of the colony was for some time inter- 
rupted by the intrigues of Clayhorne, who finally supplanted 
the proprietor, and compelled him to retire from the settle- 
ment. The very first act of those who succeeded in the gov- 
ernment was to strike out the fairest feature in the original 
constitution of the colony, namely, religious toleration, and 
to enact the severest penalties against the professors of every 
creed at variance with that of the Protestant Church of Eng- 
land. Thus the Catholics were doomed to see themselves 
deprived of the free exercise of their holy religion within the 
limits of that colony in which they had labored to establish 
the blessing of toleration, and that, too, by the very persons 
to whom their benevolence had granted an asylum and home. 
After several years of disorder, however, the authority of 
the Catholic proprietor was restored, and the province began 
to assume its usual prosperity. 

* Bancroft in his History of the United States, speaking of Maryland, 
says: " Its history is the history of benevolence, gratitude, and toleration. 
The Roman Catholics who were oppressed by the laws of England, were 
sure to find a peaceful asylum in the quiet harbors of the Chesapeake, 
and there, too, Protestants were sheltered from Protestant intolerance." 

3. What claim our admiration ? What reflects the highest honor on 
Lord Baltimore, etc. ? What did the Catholics of Maryland do ? — 4. 
How was the tranquillity of the colony interrupted? What was the first 
act of those who succeeded in the government ? AVhat were the Cath- 
olics doomed to see ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 437 

CHAPTER VL 

PENNSYLVANIA AND ITS FAMOUS FOUNDER. 

IN 1681, the settlement of Pennsylvania was commenced 
under the direction of the celebrated William Fenn, after 
whom the State is named. This eminent man was the son 
of Admiral Fenn, who served in the British navy during the 
protectorate of Cromwell, and during a part of the reign of 
Charles II. In early life he embraced the tenets of Quakers 
or Friends, and shared largely of the persecution which was 
carried on in England against them, being repeatedly har- 
assed by fines and imprisonment. Roused at length by these 
unjust and intolerant proceedings, Penn resolved to seek in 
the New World an asylum from the bigotry and oppression of 
the Old. Accordingly he applied to Charles II., from whom 
he obtained the grant of a large tract of country, including 
the present State of Pennsylvania, in consideration of a debt 
due from the crown to his father. 

2. The first colonists arrived in the country in 1681, and 
began a settlement above the confluence of the Delaware and 
Schuylkill rivers. In the month of October of the following 
year, Penn arrived in the colony, accompanied by two thou- 
sand associates, chiefly of the denomination of the Friends 
or Quakers, and during the next year laid out the plan for 
the city of Philadelphia. Penn's first care after his arrival 
was to conciliate the friendship of the Indians. Accordingly, 
having assembled a council, he obtained possession of the land 
by a fair purchase, giving them in exchange such European 
goods as were useful to them, and entered into a solemn 
treaty with them, which was inviolably observed for a period 
of seventy years. 

3. His system of government was established on the most 
humane and liberal principles. After the example of Lord 
Baltimore, he made civil and religious liberty the basis of all 
his institutions, and to these wise regulations may be attrib- 
uted the rapid advancement of Pennsylvania in population, 
enterprise, and importance. In addition to the territory in- 

Chapter VI. — 1. When and by whom was the settlement of Penn- 
sylvania commenced? What is said of him? What did Penn resolve? 
— 2. When and where did the first colony arrive ? When did P^nn ar- 
rive? What city did he lay out? What was his first care? — 3, What 
is said of his system of government ? 
37* 



438 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

eluded in the grant which he obtained from King Charles, 
Penn became the proprietor of a tract of land, the present 
State of Delaware, which he obtained by purchase from the 
Duke of York. Having several times visited England, he at 
length died at London in 1*718, at the age of seventv-five 
years. 



CHAPTER VII. 

DELAWARE, NEW JERSEY, THE GAROLINAS, AND GEORGIA. 

DELAWARE was first settled in 1627, by a company of 
Swedes and Finns, who, having arrived in the country, 
purchased from the Indians the land from Gape Henlopen to 
the falls of the Delaware, and commenced a settlement at the 
mouth of Christiana creek, near Wilmington. They named 
the country New Sweden. But their empire was not destined 
to be of long duration. In 1651, the Dutch in the neigh- 
boring colony of the New Netherlands, who had always 
regarded the Swedish settlement with an eye of jealousy, un- 
der their Governor, Peter Stuyvesant, invaded New Sweden, 
and reduced it to complete subjection. When the English 
afterwards conquered New York, they also obtained Dela- 
ware, which was considered a part of that territory. 

2. New Jersey was first settled by Hollanders and Swedes. 
When New York was ceded by Charles 11. to his brother, 
the Duke of York, all the territory between the Hudson and 
Delaware rivers was included in the grant. The tract com- 
prising the present State of New Jersey, he sold to Lord 
Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. In 16t4, Lord Berkeley 
disposed of his share of New Jersey to two English Quakers, 
named Fenwicke and Byllinge ; and in the year 1682 Wil- 
liam Penn and eleven others of the Society of Friends be- 
came the proprietors of the remainder of the province, which 
they purchased from Sir George Carteret. The first Gov- 
ernor was the celebrated Robert Barclay, the author of the 
"Apology for the Quakers," whose administration was for 
life. 

Of what did Penn become the proprietor ? Where and when did he 
die? 

Chapter VII. — 1. When and by whom was Delaware settled? In 
1651 what took place ? — 2. By whom was New Jersey settled ? In 1674 
what did Lord Berkeley do ? Who afterwards became the proprietors ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 439 

3. North and South Carolina now claim our attention. 
Towards the middle of the seventeenth century a considera- 
ble number of persons, suffering in Virginia from religious 
intolerance, removed beyond the limits of that colony, and 
commenced a settlement in a portion of country north of 
Albemarle Sound, and shortly afterwards another company 
of adventurers from Massachusetts settled near Cape Fear. 
In 1663, Charles II. granted to Lord Clarendon and others 
the entire tract of land lying between the thirty-first and 
thirty-sixth degree of north latitude, and extending from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. 

4. The proprietors endeavored to hasten the settlement of 
this extensive region by establishing a liberal government, 
allowing perfect freedom in religion, and by offering a por- 
tion of land for the first five years at a half-penny an acre. 
They afterwards extended their settlements to the banks of 
the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where Charleston now stands; 
and in lt39, the title of the land was sold to the crown, after 
which the country was divided into North and South Caro- 
lina, and a royal Governor appointed over each. During the 
year It 00, the growth of cotton was introduced, and two 
years later that of rice, which articles have subsequently be- 
come the prominent staples of those States. 

5. Georgia, the last settled of the thirteen original States 
that revolted against Great Britain, received its name from 
George II. In 1732 one hundred and sixteen persons em- 
barked from England under General Oglethorpe, and arrived 
at Charleston early in the follow^ing year. From Charleston 
they sailed to their destined territory, and shortly after their 
arrival they laid the foundation of the city of Savannah. 
For several years after the settlement was commenced, the 
colony remained in a languishing state, but after the surren- 
der of its charter to the crown, it began to flourish. 

6. In the year 1736 the famous John Wesley arrived in 
Georgia, and commenced his missionary labors among the 
colonists and Indians, but not meeting with the desired suc- 
cess, he returned again to England. Oglethorpe was dis- 
tinguished as a soldier and a statesman. At an early age 

3. What provinces next claim our attention ? Towards the middle of 
the seventeenth century what was done ? In 1 663 what did Charles grant ? 
— 4. What did the proprietors do? In 1739 what was done? What 
iras introduced in 1700? — 5. Which was the last of the thirteen States? 
When and by whom was the settlement commenced ? Of what city did 
they lay the foundation? — 6. In the year 1736 who arrived? What is 
said of Oglethorpe ? 



440 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

he served on the continent of Europe under the celebrated 
Prince Eugene, until the return of peace ; and on his return 
to England he was elected a member of the British Parlia- 
ment. At the beginning of the American revolution he was 
offered the command of the British army, which high office 
he thought proper to decline. He died shortly after the con- 
test was decided, at the advanced age of ninety-seven years. 



CHAPTER yill. 

THE FRENCH WAR, AND THE CONQUEST OF CANADA. 

AS we have already learned, the French made settlements 
in Canada, on the banks of the St. Lawrence, about the 
same time that the English colony at Jamestown was com- 
menced in Virginia. In 1608 Champlain founded the city 
of Quebec. Besides the possessions of Canada at the north, 
Prance had also a territory on the Mississippi, at the south, 
called Louisiana. The boundary between the English and 
French colonies had long been a subject of dispute and fruit- 
less negotiation. It had been for some time a favorite object 
on the part of France to connect her distant possessions, by 
erecting forts along the Ohio and the lakes, and thus to re- 
strict the British to a limited territory on the sea-coast. 

2. This proceeding on the part of France alarmed the 
English, and called forth the most decisive measures. Re- 
peated complaints of violence having been made to the Gov- 
ernor of Virginia, he determined to send a messenger to the 
French commander at Fort Duquesne (Du-ken'), on the 
Ohio, where Pittsburgh now stands, to demand the reasons 
of his hostile conduct, and to insist that he should evacuate 
the fort. The choice of a person to perform this arduous 
undertaking fell upon George Washington, the future deliv- 
erer of his country, then a young man in the twenty-first 
year of his age. Having received his instructions from the 
Governor, he departed on his perilous journey to the French 
settlement, at a distance of near four hundred miles, one- 

When did he die ? 

Chapter VIII. — 1. Where had the French made settlements? What 
had long been a subject of dispute ? What was the object of the French ? 
— 2. What did the Governor of Virginia determine? Whom did he 
select ? What was the distance ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 441 

half of the route being through a wilderness inhabited by 
hostile savages. On the way, his horse failing, he proceeded 
on foot, accompanied by a single companion, with a gun in 
his hand and a pack on his shoulders. On the 12th of De- 
cember he reached the French fort, delivered his message to 
the commander, and by the middle of January returned in 
safety with an answer to the Governor of Virginia. 

3. The reply not proving satisfactory, the organization 
of a regiment was immediately commenced in Virginia, to 
support the claims of Great Britain over the disputed terri- 
tory. Fry was appointed Colonel of this regiment, and 
young Washington Lieutenant-Colonel ; but on the death of 
Fry, which happened shortly after his appointment, the com- 
mand devolved on Washington. Without delay Washington 
marched forward at the head of this small force to dislodge 
the French from Fort Duquesne, situated at the confluence 
of the Allegheny and 3Ionongahe'la rivers. But before he 
reached the place, he was informed that the garrison had 
been strongly reinforced, and that a body of nine hundred 
French were advancing against him. He therefore thought 
it prudent to fall back to a fort which he had previously 
thrown up ; but before he had time to complete his defence, 
he was attacked by the French general, De F^7/^er, and, after 
making a brave resistance, he was compelled to yield on hon- 
orable terms of capitulation. 

4. In the year 1755, General Brad' dock arrived in Vir- 
ginia with two regiments, and after being joined by the pro- 
vincials, under Washington, his forces amounted to twenty 
thousand men. Braddock was brave, reckless, obstinate, 
and inexperienced in Indian warfare. Washington, who 
acted as his aid-de-camp, asked permission to go forward 
and scour the woods with the provincial troops under his 
command ; but Braddock, despising this prudent advice, 
pushed forward incautiously, and when within a few miles 
of Fort Duquesne he fell into an ambuscade of French and 
Indians. The invisible enemy commenced a heavy discharge 
of musketry upon his unprotected troops. The van was 
forced back upon the main body, and the whole army thrown 
into disorder. A dreadful slaughter now ensued. Braddock 

On his way what happened? When did he reach the fort? — 3. 
After this, what was immediately commenced? Of this regiment, who 
was appointed colonel ? Where did Washin,2rton march ? What was 
he informed before he reached the place ? What did he do ? — 4. In 
]755, who arrived ? What is said of Braddock? What did Washing- 
ton ask ? What did Braddock do ? 



442 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

did all that a brave general could do to encourage his men 
to stand the assault ; but valor was unavailing. After an 
action of three hours, seven hundred of the English were 
left dead upon the field, and Braddock himself, after having 
three horses shot under him, fell mortally wounded. Wash- 
ington had two horses killed under him, and four bullets 
passed through his coat, yet he escaped uninjured. The 
provincial troops under his command preserved their order, 
and covered the retreat of the regulars, who broke their ranks, 
and could not be rallied. 

5. Three successive campaigns produced nothing but ex- 
pense and disappointment to the British government. The 
lakes and the whole western and northern border were in 
possession of the ever active French and Indians. With an 
inferior force they had maintained a superiority, and even 
extended their encroachments. In lt56, a change was effected 
in the British ministry, and William Pitt (afterwards Lord 
Chatham) was raised to the head of the administration. 
From this moment affairs began to assume a new aspect. 
The active and enterprising genius of Pitt seemed to diffuse 
itself through every department of the state. He addressed 
a circular to the colonies in America, assuring them that an 
effectual force should be sent from England, and called on 
them to furnish as large a force as their population would 
permit. The number of men brought into the field at the 
next campaign amounted to fifty thousand, of which twenty 
thousand were raised in the colonies. 

6. The first expedition was directed against Louisburg, in 
Cape Breton, which, after an obstinate resistance, surrendered 
with a garrison consisting of nearly six thousand men. Ti- 
condero'ga and Crown Point next fell into the hands of the 
English. Niagara was besieged, and, after a severe action, 
also surrendered. But a far more important and more dan- 
gerous enterprise remained yet to be accomplished. The city 
of Quebec, a place strongly fortified by nature and art, the 
capital of the French dominions in America, was protected 
by a garrison of ten thousand men, under the able and expe- 
rienced General Montcalm'. The arduous duty of reducing 
the place was committed to the heroic General Wolfe. 

T. Having landed his army, consisting of eight thousand 

What was his fate? What is said of Washington? — 5. What did 
three campaigns produce ? In 1756 what took place ? What did he 
address? What was the number of men at the next campaign? — 6. 
What was the first expedition ? What places were taken ? What is 
said of Quebec ? To whom was the duty of reducing it committed ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 443 

men, on the island of Orleans, below Quebec, he made an 
unsuccessful attempt to reduce the city. Not discouraged 
by this failure, Wolfe conceived the design of ascending, 
during the night, a steep and craggy precipice, to an emi- 
nence on the north bank of the river called the Heights of 
Abraham. This enterprise he effected with incredible labor, 
before Montcalm had the slightest intimation of his design, 
and by sunrise the following morning his whole army was 
arrayed on the plains above. A sanguinary battle followed, 
in which the French were entirely defeated, with a loss of 
fifteen hundred men, among whom were numbered four of 
their principal officers, who fell in the action. But while the 
French were called to mourn the loss of their great and fear- 
less commander, Montcalm, the British were compelled to 
lament the death of the heroic Wolfe, who fell in the moment 
of victory. Having received a mortal wound, he was carried 
to the rear of the army, where he caused himself to be raised 
that he might view the engagement. Faint with the loss of 
blood, he had reclined his head upon the arm of an officer, 
when he was roused by the cry : " They fly, they fly ! " 
" Who fly ? " exclaimed the dying General. Being told that 
y\i was the French, he replied, "I die contented," and imme- 
diately expired. The sentiments of Montcalm in the moments 
of death are equally remarkable. On being told by the sur- 
geon that his wound was mortal, he asked : " How long have 
I yet to live? " " Ten or twelve hours at most," replied the 
surgeon. " The shorter the better," returned Montcalm ; 
and he added, *' at least I shall not see the English in Que- 
bec." Finally, addressing himself to the next in command, 
he said : " To your care I commit the honor of France. As 
for me, I am going to pass my time with God, and prepare 
for death." The battle of the Plains of Abraham was fol- 
lowed by the reduction of the city, and subsequently by that 
of all Canada ; so that of all the territories claimed by France 
in America, New Orleans, and a few plantations on the Mis- 
sissippi, alone remained in her possession, A. d. 1*763. 

7. What design did Wolfe conceive ? What ensued? What was the 
loss of the French ? What was the fate of Wolfe ? What is related of 
him before his death? What is said of Montcalm? AVhat followed 
the reduction of this city ? 



444 AMERICAN COLONIES, 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE OPPRESSIVE MEASURES THAT FINALLY LED TO THE 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

VTEYER had the attachment of the colonies to the mother 
XS country been more strongly manifested than during the 
French war, which had terminated so advantageously to 
England. The colonists felt proud of their descent and con- 
nection with one of the most powerful nations of Europe. 
But the peculiar circumstances in which the early settlers 
had been placed, led them to study with more than usual 
care the principles of political liberty, and to view with a 
jealous eye every encroachment of power. What degree of 
authority the parent country might exercise over the colo- 
nies, had never been defined. In England, the doctrine pre- 
vailed, that Parliament had the power to bend them in all 
cases whatever; a principle which, in America, had been 
publicly denied. 

2. The expenses attending the recent war had rendered it 
necessary to increase the usual taxes of the English nation ; 
but the ministry, apprehensive of rendering themselves un- 
popular by too severely pressing on the resources of the 
people at home, determined to raise a revenue from the colo- 
nies in America. In 1765, Grenville, the commissioner of 
the treasury, introduced the famous Stamp Act, by which 
all instruments of writing, such as law documents, deeds, 
leases, wills, etc., were to be null and void, unless on stamped 
paper, on which a duty was to be paid. The bill passed the 
House after a long and animated discussion. 

3. The news of this measure created the greatesi? sensation 
among the colonists. In vain did they remonstrate. The 
Act went into execution during the following year. The as- 
sembly of Virginia was in session when the intelligence ar- 
rived ; and a number of resolutions were immediately brought 

■forward by the patriotic Fatrick Henry in opposition to the 
Act. Massachusetts also declared herself opposed to it, and 
in all the colonies a determined* spirit of resistance to the 

Chapter IX,— 1. What is said of the attachment of the colonies? 
Of what were they proud? In England, what doctrine prevailed? — 2. 
What did the expenses render necessary ? What is said of the minis- 
try ? In 1765, what was introduced ? What was the nature of this act ? 
— 3. What did the news of this measure create ? In the assembly of 
Virginia, what was done ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 445 

oppressive measure was strongly manifested. When the 
news of the Stamp Act reached Boston, the bells were muf- 
fled and rung a funeral peal. The crown officers were treated 
with insult, and, in some instances, the houses were broken 
open or demolished. In the city of New York, the Act 
was carried through the streets with a death's head affixed 
to it, bearing this inscription: "The folly of England, and 
the ruin of America." 

4. A Colonial Congress met at New York, and published 
a declaration of their rights, insisting particularly on the 
exclusive right of taxing themselves, and loudly complaining 
of the Stamp Act. The merchants of Boston, New York, 
and Philadelphia entered into a combination, and passed a 
resolution not to import or sell British goods until the offen- 
sive measure should be repealed. So great and spirited was 
the opposition of the colonies, that the Stamp Act, through 
the exertions of Mr. Pitt, Lord Camden, and others, was 
repealed in the spring of lt66; but the repeal was accom- 
panied with a foolish and unjust declaration that the British 
Parliament had the power to enforce upon the colonies any 
measure it might think proper ; and in accordance with this 
principle, an act was passed during the following year, 1761, 
imposing a duty on tea, paper, glass, and painters' colors. 
This act was followed by another most arbitrary declaration, 
that all offenders in Massachusetts should be sent to England 
for trial, and in order to carry these measures into effect, two 
British regiments were sent over and quartered in Boston. 

5. The feelings of the citizens were highly exasperated to 
see themselves beset by an insolent soldiery, sent over with 
the design of frightening them into compliance with the ar- 
bitrary acts of the British Parliament. Frequent disputes 
occurred between them and the soldiers, and on the 5th of 
March, 1170, a collision took place between a detachment of 
troops under Captain Preston, and the inhabitants of Boston, 
which resulted in the death of three of the latter, while five 
more were dangerously wounded. Captain Preston and the 
soldiers were brought to trial and acquitted, except two, who 
were convicted of manslaughter. 

6. Lord North succeeded to the Duke of Grafton as Prime 

And in Boston ? In the city of New York ? — 4. What did the Colo- 
nial Congress publish? What did the merchants of Boston, etc., do ? 
When was the vStamp Act repealed? In 1767, what was passed? By 
what was this followed ? — 5. What frequently occurred ? On the 5th 
of March, 1770, what happened ? — 6. By whom was the Duke of Grafton 
succeeded ? 



446 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

Minister of England, in HtO, when all the duties were re- 
pealed, with the exception of the one imposing three pence 
per pound on tea. Things continued in this state of partial 
irritation until the year 1773, when the British East India 
Company were authorized to export their tea to the colo- 
nies free of duty. The inhabitants of New York and Phil- 
adelphia prevented the landing of the tea ships sent to 
these cities, but the people of Boston showed their resent- 
ment in a more impressive manner. A party of men, dis- 
guised as Indians, boarded the vessels, and threw the tea, 
consisting of three hundred and forty-two chests, into the 
harbor. 

7. Nothing could exceed the indignation of Parliament 
when the news of this transaction reached England. A.}\ 
act was immediately passed by which the port of Boston 
was closed, and the government and officers transferred to 
Salem, a. d. 1774. 

In May of the same year, General Gage, who had been 
appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in North 
America, arrived in Boston ; and was shortly followed by 
two regiments more, with artillery and military stores. 

By these proceedings, the Americans very justly concluded 
that it was the object of the British government to reduce 
them to obedience by force of arms ; that the hour of recon- 
ciliation was passed ; that their rights could only be main- 
tained by an appeal to force ; therefore, without delay, they 
began to prepare themselves for the contest. 

8. An agreement was entered into by many of the most 
distinguished men of Massachusetts, called a '' Solemn League 
and Covenant," by which they determined to suspend all 
intercourse with Great Britain until their rights should be 
restored. A regular enlistment of soldiers was commenced, 
and five general officers were appointed. The general court 
of Massachusetts resolved that a congress of the colonies 
should be called ; accordingly, on the 5th of September, del- 
egates from all the colonies, except Georgia, met at Philadel- 
phia. This body is generally known by the name of the 
Continental Congress, of which Peyton Ran'dolph of Virginia 
was the first President. It consisted of fifty-five members. 

What took place in 1773 ? How did the people of Boston show their 
resentment? — 7. What act was immediately passed? In May of tlie 
same year, who arrived in Boston ? By these proceedings, what did the 
Americans conclude? — 8. What agreement was entered into? What 
was commenced ? What did the court of Massachusetts resolve ? By 
what name is this body known? Who was the first President? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 447 

They published a declaration of the colonies, agreed to sus- 
pend all intercourse with Great Britain, and drew up an 
address to the King, another to the people of England, and 
a third to the colonies. 

9. When the proceedings of the Continental Congress 
were laid before the Parliament, an address was presented 
to the King, declaring that Massachusetts was in a state of 
rebellion, and requesting that effectual means might be taken 
to suppress it. Accordingly, during the winter and spring 
of 1Y75, the number of royal troops in Boston was increased 
to ten thousand, a force deemed sufficient for that purpose. 
In February, General Gage despatched a body of troops to 
Salem, to take possession of some pieces of cannon, but they 
were disappointed in their object. The cannon were removed 
through the precaution of the provincials, who had received 
Intimation of Gage's design. 

10. In April, General Gage sent another body of troops, 
under Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, to destroy the mili- 
tary stores which had been collected at Concord, about twenty 
miles distant from Boston. On the morning of the 19th of 
April, as they passed through Lexington, they were met by a 
party of militia, to the number of about seventy, who had 
assembled on the green for the purpose of opposing their 
progress. Major Pitcairn, riding up, called out to them to 
disperse ; but not being obeyed, he discharged his pistol, and 
ordered his men to fire. Eight of the Americans were killed, 
and several wounded. Thus was shed the first blood in that 
memorable contest, which finally resulted in securing the 
liberty, and establishing the independence of the United 
States. 

11. The royal troops after this proceeded to Concord, and 
destroyed some military stores collected in the town. The 
British commander then attempted to cut off the approach 
of the Americans from the neighborhood, by destroying or 
occupying the bridges. Accordingly a small force was sent 
to take possession of a bridge over Concord River, but being 
attacked by the Americans, who were desirous of keeping 
open a communication with the town, a sharp action took 
place, which terminated in the retreat of the British, with a 

What did they do? — 9. What was done when tlie proceedings of 
Congress were laid before Parliament? In February, what did Gen- 
eral Gage do? — 10. In April, what took place? On the 19th, by whom 
were they met? What did Major Pitcairn do? How many of the 
Americans were killed? — 11. What did the British commander attempt 
to do ? What took place at the bridge over Concord Kiver ? 



448 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

loss of several killed and wounded. Hastily burying their 
dead in the public square, the British troops commenced their 
march, or rather their retreat, towards Boston. In the mean 
time, the people of the neighborhood flew to arms, and at- 
tacked the flying troops on every side. An incessant fire 
was kept up from behind trees, walls, and rocks, until they 
reached Lexington, where they were joined by a reinforce- 
ment, which secured their retreat to Boston, after sustaining 
a loss of sixty-five killed, and one hundred and eighty 
wounded. The Americans lost fifty killed and thirty-four 
wounded. 

12. From the first appearance of the approaching contest, 
the Americans were anxious that when an attack should be 
made, the British should be the aggressors. In this they 
were gratified by the affair at Lexington, which was now 
considered as the signal for hostilities. The forts, maga- 
zines, and arsenals within the limits of the colonies were 
instantly secured for the use of the Americans. Congress, 
on hearing what had taken place at Lexington, immediately 
passed a resolution for raising an army of thirty thousand 
men in New England ; and in a short time a considerable 
force was collected in the vicinity of Boston. The first 
expedition was directed against Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point, which were taken by surprise. Towards the end of 
May, a considerable reinforcement of British troops arrived 
at Boston, under the command of Generals Howe, Clinton, 
and Burgoyn'e, officers of high reputation. 

13. For the purpose of annoying, or, if possible, of driving 
the British from Boston, a detachment of one thousand men, 
under the command of Colonel Prescott, was ordered to 
throw up a breastwork on Bunker Hill, but by some mis- 
take they took possession of Breed^s Hill, an eminence much 
nearer Boston. Moving silently to the spot on the evening 
of the 16th of June, they prosecuted their design with so 
much expedition, that by the return of day they had nearly 
completed an intrenchment of ten rods square. At the break 
of day, their operations being discovered, a brisk cannonade 
was commenced, from a vessel lying in the harbor, against 
the works of the Americans, without being able to retard 
their progress. During the morning, Colonel Prescott re- 

What did the British do ? How many were killed on both sides ? — 
12. For what were the Americans anxious? What did Congress imme- 
diately ? What was the first expedition ? In May^ Avhat arrived in Bos- 
ton? — 13. For the purpose of driving the British from Boston, what was 
done ? How did they pi-osecute their design ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 449 

ceived a reinforcement of five hundred men. About noon, 
a detachment of two thousand men, under the command of 
General Howe, were sent to drive the Americans from their 
intrenchments. A severe engagement followed, during which 
the British were twice repulsed with dreadful slaughter ; but 
from the failure of the ammunition of the Americans, they 
finally succeeded in carrying the fortifications, after sustaining 
a loss of one thousand and fifty-four in killed and wounded. 
The loss on the part of the Americans amounted to four hun- 
dred and fifty-three ; and among the slain they had to num- 
ber the much lamented and patriotic Major-General Warren, 
who had hastened as a volunteer to the field of battle. While 
the British were advancing to the attack, Charlestown was 
ordered to be set on fire, and in a few hours the whole town, 
consisting of four hundred houses, was laid in ashes. 

14. The Congress then in session at Philadelphia, resolved 
on immediate measures of defence. It began the organiza- 
tion of a continental army, selected George Washington, a 
member of their body from Virginia, as Commander-in-Chief, 
and made the appointment of subordinate officers under him. 
With much diffidence. General Washington received the ap- 
pointment, but without delay entered immediately on the 
duties of his office, and by the 2d of July joined the army 
at Cambridge, near Boston. 

15. With a view of guarding the frontiers, a plan was 
devised for the invasion of Canada, and, if possible, to re- 
duce the country. In pursuance of this object, a body of 
troops, under Schuyler and Montgomery, were sent to that 
province ; but the former having returned to treat with the 
Indians, was prevented by sickness from again joining the 
army. The chief command therefore devolved upon Mont- 
gomery, who, having taken Fort Chamblee, St. John'^s, and 
the city of Montreal, which surrendered without resistance, 
pursued his victories to the ver}^ walls of Quebec. Colo- 
nel Benedict Arnold was sent with a reinforcement of one 
thousand men to join Montgomery, and after a fatiguing 
march through the wilderness, during which his troops were 
exposed to incredible suffering, he reached Quebec in Novem- 
ber. After remaining before the city for some time, without 

At noon, what took place ? What followed ? What was the loss of 
the British? Of the Americans? What city was set on fire? — 14. 
What did Congress resolve? Who was selected as commander-in- 
chief? When and where did he join the army? — 15. What plan was 
devised? Who was sent to that province? What places did Mont- 
gomery take ? By whom was he joined ? 
38 * '2D 



450 AMERICAN COLONIES. 

the slightest prospect of being able to take it by a siege, they 
resolved to attempt it by an assault. Accordingly, on the 
last day of December, 1775, they made an attack upon the 
city in three separate divisions, v^^hich, however, proved un- 
successful, and fatal to the brave Montgomery, who fell in 
the act of scaling the walls. 

16. Early in the following spring, the Americans being 
obliged to relinquish their design of reducing Canada,* 
evacuated the country. About this time the flourishing 
town of Norfolk was wantonly burnt by order of Lord 
Dunmore, the royal governor of Virginia; and Falmouth, 
a town in the province of Maine, shared the same fate, being 
laid in ashes by order of the British Admiral. In October, 
General Gage having embarked for England, the command 
of the British forces devolved on Sir William Howe. 

17. During the summer and autumn of 1775, the array under 
General Washington, amounting in number to about fifteen 
thousand, remained inactive for want of suitable arms and am- 
munition ; but early in the following spring, an effort was made 
to dislodge the British from Boston. On the night of the 
4th of March, a battery was erected, with much secrecy and 
despatch, on Dorchester Heights, a, situation that completely 
commanded the city. Unable to remove the Americans from 
their position, General Howe deemed it expedient to evacu- 
ate the town; and, on the 17th of March, he embarked his 
troops for Halifax, and General Washington, on the same 
day, entered Boston in triumph, amidst the joyous acclama- 
tions of the inhabitants. 

18. Early in the following summer, a small armament, un- 

* Canada is now the most important colonial possession of Great 
Britain. In 1791 , it was divided into two provinces — Upper C^anada and 
Lower Canada, or Canada East and Canada West. These two sections 
were reunited in 1840. In 1867, the confederation of the British prov- 
inces of North America, known as the Dominion of Cfmac/a, was formed. 
It now consists of the provinces of (1) Quebec, formerly Lower Canada; 
(2) Ontario, formerly Upper Canada; (3) Nova Scotia; (4) Neiv Bruns- 
ivick ; (5) Manitoba; (6) British Columbia; and (7) Prince Edward's 
Island. Thus nearly all British North America is included in the 
Dominion of Canada. The constitution of the Dominion is modelled 
on that of the mother country. The Parliament consists of an LTpper 
House, styled the Senate, and a Lower House, called the House of Com- 
mons. The Queen is represented by a Governor-General. — M. 

What did they resolve ? What was the result ? — 1 6. About this time, 
what town was burnt? In October, Avhat happened? — 17. During the 
summer of 1775, what is said of the army ? On the 4th of March, what 
was done ? On the 17th, what did General Howe do ? 



AMERICAN COLONIES. 451 

der the command of Sir Peter -P-'-^;;'-'^.^^ a body of troops 
nndpr General Clinton, made an attack on Charleston, lae 
capital of South Carolina; but after a violent assault upon 
h^f^t on Sullivan's Island, from which they were rep^l^d 

with considerable loss, the en^^"^^^? ^,^„^2 ° FnUand it 
the news of the battle of Bunker Hill reached England, it 
filled all minds with surprise and astonishment. LordChat- 
C ", and Fo. endeavored, but in --- t^J^f^l «^^ 
chan-e in the measures of the government. The mimstry 
Wrndi; persisted in their plans, and oWamed an act f p , m 
ment 'authorizing them to employ sixteen thousand merce 
nary troops from the Landgrave of ffesse^M th« ^«f«^/ 
BrLswick. All trade and "^tercourse with the colomes 
were prohibited, and their property on the h gh seas was 
declared forfeited to those who should capture it. 

19 At the commencement of the controversy,, the Amer^ 
cans hfd contended only for their rights as British subjects 
but these hostile measures induced them to aBSume a loftier 
position Seeing there was no alternative left, but that ot 
Absolute freedom or unconditional submission, they deter- 
mted to severentirely those ties that bound them to the 
mother country, and assert their independence^ On t^th 
nf Tune a motion was made m Congress by hichara nenry 
/i of Vir^inZand seconded by John Adarasoi Massa- 
chusetts, fo? declaring the colonies ^^X^^'^itCsor^ 
onrl »t the same time a committee, consisting ot Jefferson 
litsFr^linlherman, and Livingston, was appointed 
to prepare rhe^ecZaraiio; of Independence M was 
fina^y adopted, after a full discussion, by a vote almost unani- 
mous, on the memorable 4th of July, me.* 

* See the Declaralim o/ Indepmdence in th e Appendix. 

18 By whom was an attack made on Charleston? Whatjs said of 
Ch^hS;, Burke, and Fox? ^hat did the mmistr, oto^^^ 
what had the Americans ^°f,°^f/j,f„tf "L^wi done in On'gress? 
'wt':Lttp™lnt^ed o^"the^co'mm t e\o prepare the Declaration? 



BOOK XYIL 

The United States of America. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE WAR OF THE REVOLUTION.— A. D. 1776 TO 1783. 

DURING the second Continental Congress, the Colonies 
which had united against the oppressive measures of 
Great Britain, received the appellation of the United Colo- 
nies, but in the Declaration of Independence they were styled 
the United States of America. From this period, then, be- 
gins the history of the United States. 

The first important battle that took place after the Declara- 
tion of Independence was that of Long Island. In June, 
1776, General Howe arrived off Sandy Hook, where he was 
shortly afterwards joined by his hvotheT, Admiral Lord Howe, 
with a great naval armament. General Washington, who 
knew that the favorite object of the British was to get pos- 
session of New York, had removed to that city with the 
greater part of his army. 

2. On the 22d of August the British landed on Long 
Island, and on the 27th a severe engagement took place, in 
which the Americans were defeated with a loss of nearly one 
thousand men. The American Generals, Sullivan and Lord 
Stirling, fell into the hands of the British, whose loss was 
estimated at about four hundred men. During the engage- 
ment, General Washington had hastened from New York 
with reinforcements to the scene of action ; but considering 
the inequality of numbers, it was thought expedient to 
evacuate the Island, which was accordingly effected on the 

Chapter I. — 1. Why should the history of the United States com- 
mence from this period ? Where did the first battle take place after the 
Declaration? — 2. When did the British land? What followed on the 
27th of August ? During the engagement, what did General Washing- 
ton do? 

452 



UNITED STATES. 453 

night of the 28th of the same month, with so much silence 
and order, that the British army, although not more than a 
quarter of a mile distant, had no intimation of their design 
until the Americans, with all their tents and baggage, were 
safely landed in the city of New York. 

3. General Howe, who had been commissioned to settle 
the difficulties with the Colonies, thought this a favorable op- 
portunity to make proposals for an accommodation. He 
therefore dispatched several letters to General Washington, 
but as they were directed to George Washington, Esq., the 
American commander-in-chief refused to receive them unless 
addressed to him in his proper character. Howe then sent 
General Sullivan, who had been taken prisoner in the battle 
of Long Island, with a message to Congress ; and in a few 
days after this, Dr. Franklin, John Adams, and Edward 
Rut'ledge were commissioned to hold an interview with the 
British General. They were politely received, but no ac- 
commodations of peace being effected, they returned to Phila- 
delphia. 

4. In September, the city of New York was abandoned 
by the American army, and shortly afterwards occupied by 
the British. Washington, with a part of his army, had re- 
tired to White Plains, N. Y., where, on the 28th of October, 
a severe though indecisive action took place, with a loss of 
several hundred on both sides ; and shortly afterwards. Fort 
Washington, on the Hudson, was reduced by General Howe, 
and its garrison, consisting of two thousand men, was cap- 
tured. General Washington now retired to Newark ; and 
thence passed through New Brunswick, Princeton, Trenton, 
and finally crossed over to the Pennsylvania side of the 
Delaware, being so closely pursued by the British, under 
Lord GornwaVlis, that the rear of the one army was often 
in sight of the van of the other. 

5. The affairs of the Americans at this trying period bore 
the most gloomy appearance. The army under General 
Washington, reduced by the loss of men in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, by the desertion of some and the departure 
of others whose term of enlistment had expired, amounted 
to only about three thousand ; and of this number, many 
were without shoes or clothing suitable to screen them from 

3. What did Howe think ? What did he send to General Washing- 
ton ? Whom did he send with a message to Congress ? What followed ? 
— 4. What was done in September ? What took place at White Plains ? 
What fort was shortly afterwards reduced ? What course did Washing- 
ton take ? — 5. By what was the army under Washington reduced ? 



454 UNITED STATES, 

the biting cold of winter. To add to these disasters, General 
Lee had been taken prisoner at Baskenridge, and Rhode 
Island fell into the hands of the British. 

6. It was at this critical moment, when despair had filled 
almost every breast, that the expiring hopes of the nation 
were roused by a daring exploit of General Washington. 
On the night of the 25th of December he crossed the Dela- 
ware on the ice, surprised the enemy at Trenton, and took 
the whole body, consisting of about one thousand Hessian 
troops, under the command of Colonel Rahl, who was slain. 
He then proceeded to Princeton, and on the 3d of January, 
1777, defeated a party of the British, who lost about one 
hundred men, and compelled the remainder, about three 
hundred in number, to surrender themselves prisoners. In 
this action the Americans lost General Mercer, of Virginia, 
a brave and experienced officer. During the latter part of 
the year 1776, Congress had manifested the greatest energy. 
Measures were adopted for increasing the army, and Dr. 
Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane, commissioned to 
Europe to solicit the aid and alliance of foreign powers. 

7. During the spring of 1777, Governor Tryon was sent 
to destroy stores at Danbury in Connecticut. The design 
was executed and the town partly burnt. The British on 
their return were severely harassed by the Connecticut militia 
under General Wooster, who was unfortunately killed on the 
occasion. It had been long the object of General Howe to 
get possession of Philadelphia. For this purpose he em- 
barked his troops, amounting to about sixteen thousand men, 
at Staten Island, entered the Chesapeake Bay, and landing 
near the head of Elk River, commenced his march towards 
that city. General Washington, perceiving his object, hast- 
ened to oppose his progress with a much inferior force. On 
the 11th of September, a battle was fought on the banks of 
the Brandywine, in which the Americans were defeated with 
considerable loss. In this battle two eminent foreigners 
served under the American flag, — the 3Iarquis de Lafayet'te 
of France, and Count Pulas'ki of Poland, the former of whom 
was wounded. 

Where was Lee made prisoner ? — 6. On the 25th of December, what 
did General Washington do ? Where did he then proceed ? In this 
action, who was killed ? Who Avere commissioned to go to Europe ? 
— 7. What was done in the spring of 1777 ? What was the object 
of Howe? What course did he take? On the 11th of September, 
what took place ? In this battle, what distinguished foreigners 
served ? 



UNITED STATES. 455 

8. After this victory, the British General immediately di- 
rected his march to Philadelphia, and stationed the principal 
part of his army at Germantown, about seven miles from 
that city. On the 4th of October, General Washington at- 
tempted to surprise the detachment at Germantown, but was 
repulsed with a loss of twelve hundred men in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, while the loss of the enemy was about half 
that number. While these operations were carried on in the 
Middle States, more auspicious events were taking place in 
the north. General Burgoyn'e, who commanded the British 
army in that quarter, took possession of Ticonderoga, which 
had been abandoned by the Americans under General St. 
Clair. But his progress was checked by the defeat of Colonel 
Baum, near Bennington, in Vermont, by a body of militia 
under General Stark. 

9. Burgoyne having collected his forces, crossed the Hud- 
son and encamped near Saratoga. General Gates, who had 
lately been appointed to the command of the American army 
in the north, advanced towards the enemy, and on the 19th 
of September an obstinate but undecisive engagement took 
place at Stillwater; and shortly after this another severe 
action occurred, in which the British were defeated and Gen- 
eral Fraser killed. The American Generals Arnold and Lin- 
coln were wounded. General Burgoyne having made several 
ineffectual attempts to retreat, and finding his situation grow- 
ing hourly more critical, called a council of war, in which it was 
resolved to surrender by capitulation. And thus, on the Itth 
of October, 1777, his whole army, amounting to near six thou- 
sand men, surrendered to General Gates as prisoners of war. 

10. This event thrilled the heart of every true American, 
and inspired the new nation with ardor in the cause of free- 
dom. The court of France, which had secretly wished suc- 
cess to the cause of the United States, was restrained from 
giving open countenance to their agents until after the sur- 
render of Burgoyne. This event determined the course of 
France. A negotiation was immediately formed with the 
American commissioners, and on the 6th of February, 1778, 
a treaty of alliance, of amity and commerce, was concluded 

8. After this victory, where did the British proceed? On the 4th of 
October what took place ? What place did Burgoyne take ? How was 
his progress checked ? — 9. Where did Burgoyne encamp ? On the 1 9th 
of September, what took place ? Finding it impossible to retreat, what 
was resolved? What was done on the 17th of October? — 10. What is 
said of this event? Of the court of France? On the 6th of February, 
what was done ? 



456 UNITED STATES. 

and signed at Paris. The British ministry, on receiving 
intelligence of the alliance between France and the United 
States, began to hold out terms of reconciliation to the Amer- 
icans, but the Congress was now too sanguine in the hope of 
success, to listen to any terms short of an acknowledgment 
of their complete independence. 

11. In the meantime. General Howe, who had returned to 
England, was succeeded in the chief command by Sir Henry 
Clinton. It was now determined to concentrate the British 
forces in New York ; and Clinton, having evacuated Phila- 
delphia in June, crossed the Delaware, and proceeded on his 
march to that city. But as he retired, he was closely pur- 
sued by the American army under General Washington, and 
on the 28th of June a severe engagement took place at Mon- 
mouth Court-house, in which the British were repulsed with 
heavy loss, and a signal victory must have been obtained, 
had General Lee obeyed his orders. For his misconduct on 
that day Lee was suspended from duty, and never afterwards 
joined the army. 

12. In July, a French fleet of twelve ships of the line and 
four frigates, under the command of Count d''Estaing', ar- 
rived at the mouth of the Delaware ; but towards the close 
of the season it sailed to the West Indies, without having 
performed any important service. The last transaction of 
this year was an expedition against Georgia, and on the last 
day of December the British took possession of Savannah. 

13. During the year ltY9, the principal theatre of the war 
was changed from the Northern to the Southern Provinces 
of the country. On the 15th of July, a detachment under 
General Wayne was sent to dislodge the British from Stony 
Point, on the Hudson. The expedition was conducted with 
so much courage and resolution, that the whole garrison, to 
the number of five hundred men, surrendered without the 
loss of a single individual on either side. In October, Gen- 
eral Lincoln and Count d'Estaing made an attack upon Sa- 
vannah, but were repulsed with considerable loss. In this 
action the brave and patriotic Count Pulaski, of Poland, was 
mortally wounded. 

What did the British ministry do? — 11. By whom was Howe suc- 
ceeded ? AVhat was determined ? What did Clinton do ? On the 28th 
of June, what took place? What is said of General Lee? — 12. In July, 
what arrived? AVhat was the last transaction oi this year? — 13. Dur- 
ing the year 1779, where was the principal theatre of the war? What 
was done on the 15th of July ? And in October? In this action, who 
was mortally wounded ? 



UNITED STATES. 457 

14. At the opening of the campaign of 1780, the British 
troops evacuated Rhode Island. An expedition, under Sir 
Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis, was undertaken against 
Charleston, the capital of South Carolina, which was com- 
pelled to capitulate after a siege of six months, and the whole 
garrison, consisting of about two thousand five hundred men, 
together with all the adult male inhabitants, were surrendered 
as prisoners of war. Clinton, leaving four thousand troops 
under the command of Lord Cornwallis, returned to New 
York. For the purpose of subjecting the interior of the prov- 
ince, a considerable force was sent to Camden under Lord 
Eawdon. His troops, however, were greatly harassed by 
small parties of the Americans under General Sumpter and 
other distinguished officers. 

15. General Gates, who had been appointed to the com- 
mand of the southern army in the place of General Lincoln, 
arrived in South Carolina in the latter part of July, and hav- 
ing concentrated his forces, prepared to oppose the progress 
of the British. Lord Cornwallis hastened to join Lord Raw- 
don with reinforcements, and on the 16th of August a severe 
engagement took place between the two armies, in which 
General Gates was defeated, with the loss of upwards of seven 
hundred men. In this, Baron De Kalb, an eminent Prussian 
General, then in the American service, bravely maintained 
his position at the head of the regular troops of Maryland and 
Delaware, until, overpowered by numbers and almost sur- 
rounded, he was taken prisoner, and died on the following 
day of the wounds he received. In July, De Ternay, with a 
French fleet, carrying six thousand land forces under Count 
de Rochambeau' , arrived at Rhode Island. This event gave 
universal joy to the Americans ; but the fleet, leaving the 
land forces, shortly after returned to France. 

16. This year is distinguished for the treachery of General 
Benedict Arnold. General Washington, being called to Con- 
necticut on pressing business, left the important fortress of 
West Point under the command of Arnold, who had previ- 
ously distinguished himself at the siege of Quebec, and sub- 
sequently received a severe wound at Saratoga. He after- 
wards commanded in Philadelphia, where his oppressive con- 
duct rendered him subject to a trial by court-martial, by which 

14. What was undertaken by Clinton and Cornwallis ? What was 
the result?— 15. What did General Gates do? What took place on the 
16th of August? In this battle, what is said of Baron De Kalb? In 
July, what arrived at Rhode Island?— 16. For what is this year distin- 
guished ? 
39 



458 UNITED STATES. 

he was sentenced to be reprimanded. He was a brave soldier, 
but a vicious, treacherous man. He determined to have re- 
venge ; and for this purpose he basely entered into a negoti- 
ation with Sir Henry Clinton, to deliver up West Point with 
all its garrison into the hands of the British. 

IT. The English agent, through whom the negotiation with 
Arnold was conducted, was the unfortunate Major Andre'. 
After having an interview with the traitor, Andre' was on 
his return to New York, with the papers in Arnold's own 
handwriting concealed in his boot. Near Tarrytown he was 
arrested and searched by three patriotic American militia- 
men, named Paulding, Van Wart, and Williams ;* and thus 
the treacherous designs were fortunately discovered in sea- 
son to prevent their execution. Andre' being convicted as 
a spy, his life was forfeited by the laws of war. He was 
accordingly condemned and executed. His youth and his 
many amiable qualities had endeared him to the officers of 
the British army, while his fate was deeply regretted by all. 
Arnold escaped to the English, and received as a reward of 
his treason an appointment to the office of Brigadier-General 
in the British army. 

18. The campaign of 1181 was opened by an expedition 
under Benedict Arnold,f who made a descent upon the coast 
of Virginia, and committed extensive depredations. After 
the defeat of Gates, General Greene was appointed to the 
army in the southern department. From this period affairs 
in that quarter began to wear a more favorable aspect. Col- 
onel Tarleton, the British commander, was defeated by Gen- 
eral Morgan, at the battle of the Cow-Pens. The two armies 
at length, under their respective commanders, met near Guil- 
ford Court-house, in North Carolina, where one of the best 
contested battles fought during the whole war took place. 
The Americans were obliged to retire from the field, yet the 
British suffered so severe a loss that they were unable to 
pursue the victory. 

* Congress awarded to each of them a silver medal and a life pension 
of $200.— M. 

t After bearing arras against his country, this infamous traitor retired 
to England, where he was shunned and despised. He died at London, 
in obscurity, in 1801. — M. 

Into what negotiation did he enter? — 17. Who was the English 
agent? Eelate the circumstances of Andre's capture. What was his 
fate? What became of Arnold? — 18. How was the campaign of 1781 
opened? Where and by whom was Tarleton defeated? Where did the 
two armies again meet ? What was the result ? 



UNITED STATES. 459 

19. In September, General Greene obtained an important 
victory over the British, under Colonel Stuart, at Eutaw 
Springs, where General Marion particularly distinguished 
himself, and Colonel Washington, a relative of the command- 
er-in-chief, was wounded and taken prisoner. After this 
battle, Lord Cornwallis, leaving South Carolina, marched 
into Virginia, and having collected his forces, fortified him- 
self at Yorktown. General Washington, learning the posi- 
tion of Cornwallis, secretly left his camp at White Plains, 
crossed the Hudson with his army, and by forced marches, 
passed rapidly through New Jersey and Pennsylvania, ar- 
riving at the head of Elk River, where he was joined by a 
considerable reinforcement under Marquis de Lafayette. 

20. In the meantime, Clinton, who was not aware of the 
departure of General Washington until it was too late to 
pursue him, sent a detachment of troops, under the traitor 
Arnold, against New London, in Connecticut, which was 
set on fire and burned to the ground. While Washington was 
on his march to Virginia, he received the cheering intelli- 
gence of the arrival of a French fleet, consisting of twenty- 
four ships of the line, under Count de Grasse, in the Chesa- 
peake. A British fleet of nineteen vessels, under Admiral 
Graves, soon after appeared off the capes. A slight engage- 
ment took place between the two fleets, in which the French 
had the advantage, and remained in possession of the bay. 

21. A body of French troops was landed, in order to co- 
operate with the Americans, under General Washington, who 
by this time had embarked his forces and arrived at York- 
town. A close siege was now commenced, and carried on 
with so much vigor by the united forces of France and 
America, that Lord Cornwallis, on the 19th of October, 
1781, was compelled to sign articles of capitulation, by which 
the British army, military stores, and shipping were surren- 
dered to General Washington. The number of the British 
forces that surrendered on that occasion amounted to some- 
thing over seven thousand, but many of them at the time 
were unfit for duty. When the news of this glorious event, 
which was considered as deciding the contest, was reported 

19. In September, what did Greene obtain ? After this battle, where 
did Cornwallis fortify himself? What did General Washington do? — 
20. In the meantime, what was done by Clinton ? While W^ashington 
was on his march to Virginia, what news did he receive? What fleet 
appeared off the capes? What took place? — 21. What was now com- 
menced and carried on ? What was the number of forces that surren- 
dered ? At the news of this event, what did Congress do ? 



460 UNITED STATES. 

to Congress, that body immediately recommended that a day 
of public thanksgiving should be observed throughout the 
United States. Shortly after the surrender of Cornwallis, 
the British evacuated nearly all their posts in South Caro- 
lina and Georgia, and joined the main army in New York. 

22. As no rational hope now remained of conquering Amer- 
ica, Great Britain at length resolved to discontinue the pros- 
ecution of an insane war, which had already exhausted the 
nation, and reflected discredit upon its arms. Accordingly, 
on the 30th of November, provisional articles of peace were 
signed, in which the Independence of the United States was 
acknowledged; and on the 3d of September, 1783, there was 
concluded, at Versailles, France, by Franklin, Adams, Jay, 
and Laurens, on the part of America, and Mr. Oswald, on 
the part of Great Britain, a definite treaty of peace, by which 
the thirteen united colonies were admitted to be ^^ free, sov- 
ereign, and independent States.''^ 

Thus ended the long and eventful war of the Revolution, 
which cost Great Britain, besides the loss of her colonies, the 
sum of $5,000,000, and the lives of fifty thousand of her sub- 
jects. It was a contest, however, which produced for Amer- 
ica, as the happy reward of her trials, her sufferings, and the 
blood of her patriots, the establishment of her freedom and 
independence. 

23. Peace being thus restored, the first step of Congress 
was to disband the army. But here a serious difficulty arose 
respecting the payment -of the arrears of the officers and pri- 
vates, many of whom had not received for five years the 
smallest compensation. The most serious consequences were 
about to ensue, when the storm, which seemed ready to plunge 
the young Republic into all the horrors of civil war, was 
happily quelled by the prudence and energy of General Wash- 
ington. Congress having made arrangements for the pay- 
ment of the soldiers, fixed upon the 3d of November, 1783, 
for disbanding the army. 

24. On the day previous, Washington issued his farewell 
address, bidding an affectionate adieu to the soldiers who had 
bravely fought and bled by his side. After taking leave of 
the army, he was called to the still more painful duty of 
separation from officers endeared to him by the mutual dan- 

22. What did Great Britain at length resolve ? What took place on 
the 30th of November? And finally on the 3d of September, 1783? 
What did the contest cost Great Britain?— 23. What now was the first 
step of Congress ? What difficulty arose ? How was it quelled ? — 24. 
On the day previous, what did Washington do? 



UNITED STATES. 461 

gers and sufferings they had endured together. After this, 
he immediately repaired to Annapolis, where Congress was 
then in session, resigned his military commission, and declared 
that he was no longer invested with any public character. 
Having thus given back the almost unlimited power he pos- 
sessed, to that source from whence he received it, he retired 
to his estate at Mount Vernon, and again devoted himself 
to the peaceful pursuits of agriculture, carrying to his retire- 
ment the gratitude of his country and the applause and admi- 
ration of the world. 



CHAPTER II. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES, AND WASHING- 
TON'S AND ADAMS' ADMINISTRATIONS.— A. D. 1787 TO 1801. 

AT the close of the war of the Revolution, when the 
United States were released from the presence of dan- 
ger, the government, under the Articles of Confederation, 
was found to be weak, and wholly insufficient for the public 
exigencies. The authority of Congress was but little re- 
spected. A large public debt had been contracted, and no 
provisions had been made for paying the principal or the 
interest. The necessity, therefore, of a more efficient and 
general system of government was extensively felt ; and in 
accordance with a proposition of the Legislature of Virginia, 
commissioners from several States met in 1786, at Annapolis, 
for the purpose of entering into certain commercial regula- 
tions. But after some deliberation they determined to ad- 
journ, with a proposal to all the other States to appoint 
delegates to meet at Philadelphia, for the purpose of digest- 
ing a form of government equal to the wants of the Union. 
2. In accordance with this proposition, delegates from 
every State, except Rhode Island, assembled at Philadelphia 
on the 25th of May, 178t. On the motion of Robert 3Iorris, 
of Pennsylvania, General Washington, one of the delegates 
from Virginia, was unanimously elected President of the Con- 
vention. 

After this, where did he repair ? Where did he retire ? 

Chapter II. — 1. At the close of the war, what was the government 
found to be ? What is said of Cong:ress ? What proposition was made 
in the Legislature of Virginia? What did they determine ? — 2. Agree- 
ably to this, what was done ? Who was elected President ? 
39* 



462 UNITED STATES. 

On taking the chair, Washington thanked the members 
of the Convention for the honor they had conferred upon 
him, reminded them of the novelty of the scene of business 
in which he was about to act, lamented his want of better 
qualifications, and claimed the indulgence of the house for 
any involuntary errors which his inexperience might occa- 
sion. On the 29th of May, the draft of a federal government, 
differing in some particulars from the present Constitution, 
was laid before the house by Charles Finkney, of South 
Carolina. The Convention then proceeded to discuss each 
clause separately, during which various opinions were ad- 
vanced by the different delegates, and frequently animated 
discussions followed. 

3. On the subject of salaries to the executive branch of the 
legislature, Mr. Wilson, of Pennsylvania, Avho was opposed 
to the measure, said: "Sir, there are two passions which 
have a powerful influence on the aff"airs of men. These are 
ambition and avarice — the love of power, and the love of 
money. Separately, each of these has great force in prompt- 
ing men to action ; but w^hen united in view of the same 
object, they have, in many minds, the most violent effects. 
Place before the eyes of such men a post of honor, and at 
the same time that of profit, and they will move heaven and 
earth to obtain it. . . . And of what kind are the men that 
will strive for this profitable preeminence, through all the 
bustle of cabal, the heat of contention, the mutual abuse of 
parties, tearing to pieces the best of characters ? It will not 
be the wise and moderate, the lovers of peace and good order ; 
the men fittest for trust. It will be the bold and violent, men 
of strong passions and indefatigable activity in selfish pur- 
suits." 

4. On the morning of the lUh of September, after the 
last reading of the Constitution, Doctor Franklin arose with 
a speech in his hand, which he had reduced to writing for 
his own convenience, and which was as follows: — 

" Mr. President — I confess that there are several parts of 
this Constitution wiiich I do not at present approve, but I 
am not sure that I shall never approve them. For having 
lived long, I have experienced many instances of being 
obliged, by better information, or fuller consideration, to 
change my opinions even on important subjects, which I 

On taking his seat, what did he say? On the 29th of May, what was 
done?— 3. On the subject of salaries, what did Mr. Wilson observe? 
— 4. On the morning of the 17th of September, what was done by Doctor 
Franklin ? 



UNITED STATES. 463 

once thought right, but found to be otherwise. It is, there- 
fore, that the older I grow, the more apt I am to doubt my 
own judgment, and to pay more respect to the judgment of 
others. In these sentiments, sir, I agree to this Constitution 
with all its faults, if they are such, because I think a general 
government necessary for us, and there is no form of gov- 
ernment but what may prove a blessing to the people if well 
administered. Thus I consent, sir, to this Constitution, 
because I expect no better, and because I am not sure that 
it is not the best. The opinions I have had of its errors, I 
sacrifice to the public good. I have never whispered them 
abroad ; within these walls they were born, here they shall 
die. I hope, therefore, that for our own sakes, as a part of 
the people, and for the sake of posterity, we shall act heartily 
and unanimously in recommending this Constitution, if ap- 
proved by Congress, wherever our influence may extend, and 
turn our future thoughts and endeavors to the means of having 
it well administered." The Constitution was then signed 
by all the delegates present, with the exception of Randolph, 
Mason, and Gerry, who declined giving it the sanction of 
their names.* 

5. After four months' deliberation, the Federal Constitu- 
tion being thus almost unanimously agreed to by the mem- 
bers of the Convention, was presented to Congress, and by 
that body transmitted to the several States for their consid- 
eration, and being at length accepted and ratified by eleven 
of the thirteen States of the Union, it became the Constitu- 
tion of the United States, a. d. 1788. North Carolina and 
Rhode Island, the two States which at first dissented from 
it, afterwards adopted it; the former in 1789, and the latter 
in 1790. 

6. By the Constitution, all legislative powers are vested 
in a Congress of the United States, consisting of a Presi- 
dent, a Senate, and House of Representatives. In accord- 
ance with the Articles of the Constitution, the several States 
immediately elected their delegates to Congress ; and by the 
unanimous vote. General Washington was chosen the first 

* See the Comtitution of the United States, with all the recent Amend- 
ments, and the names of the original Delegates from each State, in the 
Appendix. 

Who refused to sign the Constitution ? — 5. After four months' delib- 
eration, what was done? When did it become the Constitution, etc.? 
What States rejected it, and when did they adopt it? — 6. By the Con- 
stitution, where is a legislative power invested ? Who was chosen the 
first President ? 



464 UNITED STATES. 

President. When the appointment was officially announced 
to him, the illustrious man yielded to the unanimous call of 
his country, and bidding adieu to his peaceful retirement at 
Mount Vernon, he proceeded without delay to New York, 
where the Congress was then assembled. His progress was 
marked by every demonstration of gratitude and respect. 
Triumphal arches were erected to commemorate his achieve- 
ments. He was hailed as the father of his country. The 
aged invoked a thousand benedictions upon him as he passed ; 
and the young expressed their hope, that as he had defended 
the injured rights of their parents, he would not refuse his 
protection to their children. 

7. On the 30th of April, he was inaugurated President of 
the United States, in the City Hall of New York, the oath 
of office being administered by Livingston, Chancellor of the 
State of New York. When Washington retired to the Sen- 
ate Chamber, he addressed both Houses in an impressive 
speech, reminding them that no truth was more thoroughly 
established, than that there existed an indissoluble union 
between virtue and happiness ; between duty and advan- 
tage ; between the genuine maxims of an honest and mag- 
nanimous people, and the solid rewards of public prosperity 
and happiness ; and that the propitious smiles of an over- 
ruling Providence could never be expected on a nation re- 
gardless of the fundamental rules of order and right, which 
Heaven itself had ordained. 

8. John Adams, of Massachusetts, who had borne a dis- 
tinguished part in the Revolution, was elected the first Yice- 
President. The other principal officers, at the first organiza- 
tion of the government, were Thomas Jefferson, Secretary 
of State ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; 
Henry Knox, Secretary of War ; Edmund Randolph, Attor- 
ney-General, and John Jay, Chief Justice of the United 
States. The first event of importance that distinguished the 
administration of Washington, w^as a sanguinary war with 
the Indians to the north of Ohio, who obtained a victory 
over Generals Harmer and St. Clair ; but General Wayne, 
who was appointed to the command of the army in that sec- 
tion of the country, brought the struggle to a successful ter- 



Where did he proceed ? What is said of his progress to that city ? — 
7. What took place on the 30th of April? When retired, how did he 
address the houses? Of what did he remind them, etc.? — 8. Who was 
the first Vice-President ? Who were the other principal officers? What 
first distinguished the administration of Washington ? 



UNITED STATES. 465 

mination, and compelled the savages to conclude a treaty of 
peace at Greenville in 1795. 

9. The replenishing of the treasury was the first object 
that called for legislative attention. For this purpose, duties 
were laid on imported merchandise, and a reasonable taxa- 
tion imposed on the tonnage of vessels. In It 90, Hamilton 
brought forward a bill for the formation of a national bank. 
On this subject the cabinet was divided. Jefferson and Ban- 
dolph considered the bill as decidedly unconstitutional. Ham- 
ilton and others, with equal decision, maintained the contrary 
opinion. But after a protracted debate, a bill for establish- 
ing such a bank passed both branches of the legislature, and 
received the signature of the President. The bank was char- 
tered for twenty years, with a capital of ten millions, in shares 
of four hundred dollars each. This measure seemed to increase 
the disaffection of many with the executive, and gave rise to 
the two-parties into which we find the political community 
divided at the present time. The supporters of Hamilton and 
the national bank were styled Federalists, while Jefferson and 
those who opposed it were called Democrats or Bepublicans.^ 

10. During the second term of Washington's administra- 
tion, the United States were partially involved in difficulties 
growing out of the convulsions of Europe. The French 
Revolution had commenced, and that nation made certain 
demands on this country for assistance, while the feelings 
of the people were warmly enlisted on the side of France, 
and would have urged the nation into hostilities with Eng- 
land. The President, however, determined on a course of 
neutrality, and thus happily preserved the peace of the na- 
tion, although his policy met with much opposition. At the 
expiration of his second term, Washington having previously 
declined a reelection, in a valedictory address to the people, 
replete with maxims of the soundest policy, and breathing 
the warmest sentiments of affection for his country, retired 
again to his residence at Mount Yernon, and was succeeded 
in office by John Adams, while Thomas Jefferson was chosen 
Vice-President. 

* At that time these two names were indifferently given to the same 
party — in our day known exclusively as the Democratic party. — M. 

9. What duties were laid ? In 1790, what did Hamilton do? What 
did Jefferson and Eandolph consider? For how long was the bank 
chartered? To Avhat did this measure give rise? — 10. In what was the 
United States partially involved ? What course did the President pur- 
sue ? At the expiration of his second term, what did Washington do ? 
By whom was he succeeded ? 

2E 



466 UNITED STATES. 

11. During Adams's administration, the menacing tone 
and hostile attitude of the French Directory towards the 
United States caused the American government to adopt 
measures of defence and retaliation. The nav)^ was increased, 
and a provisional army raised, of which General Washing- 
ton was appointed the Commander-in-Chief. Authority was 
given for the capturing of French armed vessels. This was 
followed by the capture of the French frigate L^Insurgente, 
after a severe action, by the American frigate Constellation. 
These decisive measures on the part of the United States 
induced the French government to accede to an amicable ad- 
justment of the dispute. Our Republic, at this period, was 
destined to experience a severe loss by the death of General 
Washington. On the 14th of December, 1799, he received a 
slight sprinkle of rain, and was seized in a few hours after- 
wards with an inflammation of the throat, attended by a fever. 
The illustrious man, who was declared to be " first in war, 
first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," died 
on the following day at his residence, at Mount Vernon, in 
the sixty-eighth year of his age.* 



CHAPTER III. 



FOREIGN RELATIONS, AND THE ADMINISTRATION OF 
THOMAS JEFFERSON.— A. D. 1801-1809. 

FOR several years the country had been much agitated by 
the conflicting parties, which differed materially from 
each other in regard to the foreign relations of this Republic 
and on various subjects of domestic policy. A commercial 
treaty with Great Britain, negotiated by Mr. Jay, in 1794, 
was severely censured by the Democrats, who accused the 
Federalists of an undue partiality for England, and were 
accused, in turn, of a similar conduct towards France. Many 
of the measures of Mr. Adams's administration, both in rela- 

* See Short Biographies of Eminent Personages. 

11. During Mr. Adams's administration, what was done? What au- 
thority was given? What was the effect of these measures? When 
and where did General Washington die? 

Chapter III. — 1. For several years, what had agitated the country? 
What was censured by the Republicans ? What is said of many of the 
measures of Mr. Adams ? 



UNITED STATES. 467 

tion to the foreign and domestic policy, were highly unpopu- 
lar. The acts which excited the most disaffection, were those 
of raising a standing army, imposing a direct tax, and en- 
acting the "Alien and Sedition Laws.^^ A change having 
taken place in the administration of the public affairs, the 
Democratic party, having gained the ascendancy, elevated 
Mr. Jefferson to the Presidential chair, at the expiration of 
Mr. Adams's first term. 

2. In 1801, when Mr. Jefferson was raised to the presi- 
dency, harmony subsisted between the United States and 
the great European powers. A new scene of vexation arose, 
and eventually a war succeeded, growing out of the piracies 
of the Barbary States. After several disputes were settled 
with Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, the Bashaw of Tripoli 
demanded certain tributes, which the United States refused 
to pay. The refusal was immediately followed by the cap- 
ture of several American vessels. In 1802, Commodore 
Dale, with three frigates and a sloop of war, was sent into 
the Mediterranean, in order to protect the American com- 
merce. In the following year, the Philadelphia, under the 
command of Captain Bainbridge, ran upon a rock about five 
miles from Tripoli, and, being assailed on all sides, and de- 
prived of every means of assistance, she was compelled to 
strike her colors. Her officers and men were made prisoners 
by the Tripolitans. The war finally terminated by a treaty 
in 1805. 

3. The other most striking events in the administration 
of Mr. Jefferson, were the purchase of Louisiana from the 
French, in 1803, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, 
two millions and a half of which were to be retained by the 
United States as a compensation for illegal captures made 
by the French. Aaron Burr was tried for attempting to 
overthrow the government, but he was finally acquitted. It 
was during this administration that the expedition of Lewis 
and Clark, who explored the Missouri River and contiguous 
countries, crossed the Rocky Mountains, reached the head 
waters of the Columbia, and descended that river to the 
Pacific Ocean. 

In 1809, Jefferson's second term of office having expired, 

What acts excited disaffection? Who was elevated to the Presi- 
dential chair? — 2. What war eventnally succeeded? What was de- 
manded by Tripoli? By what was this followed? In 1802, what took 
place ? And in the following 3^ear ? When was the war terminated ? 
— 3. What were the other events of Mr. Jefferson's administration ? In 
1809, what took place? 



468 UNITED STATES. 

and, being desirous of conforming to the example of General 
Washington, he declined a reelection. He was succeeded 
by James Madison, who had been a leading man in the late 
administration, and who pursued a similar course of policy. 



CHAPTER IV. 



MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION AND THE THREE YEARS' 
WAR.— A. D. 1809-1817. 

DURING the wars that had for some time convulsed the 
continent of Europe, the United States endeavored to 
observe neutrality towards the belligerent powers, and peace- 
ably to maintain a commercial intercourse with them. In 
the month of May, 1806, the British government declared 
all the ports and rivers from the Elbe, in Germany, to Brest, 
in France, to be in a state of blockade, and that all neutral 
vessels trading with these ports should be seized and con- 
demned. In November following, the Emperor of France 
issued his Berlin Decree, prohibiting all intercourse with 
the British Islands. This decree of Napoleon was followed 
by the Orders of the British Council, by which all neutral 
vessels trading with France were compelled to stop at a 
British port and pay a duty. In consequence of this, the 
Emperor issued his Milan Decree, by which all vessels sub- 
mitting to the British search, or consenting to pay any pecu- 
niary exactions whatever, were confiscated. 

2. About this time, at the recommendation of Mr. Jeffer- 
son, Congress laid an embargo on all the shipping of the 
United States; but the embargo was removed in the March 
of 1809, after it had remained in force about six months, and 
non-intercourse with France and England was substituted. 
While the trade of the United States was thus restricted and 
harassed by the belligerent powers of Europe, another species 
of injury and insult arose. This was the custom practised 
by Great Britain of searching American vessels on the high 

By whom was he succeeded ? 

Chapter IV. — 1. During the wars of Europe, what had the United 
States endeavored? In 1806, what did the British government do? In 
November following, what was done? By what was this followed? 
What did Bonaparte issue? — 2. At this time, what was laid? But in 
1809 what took place ? What other species of injury and insult arose ? 



UNITED STATES. 469 

seas, and impressing from them such seamen as were sup- 
posed to be British deserters. The custom was subject to 
great abuse, from the difficulty of distinguishing between 
American and British seamen ; but there was, moreover, 
strong reason to believe that the British officers were not 
always anxious to make the distinction, and that, in some 
instances, American citizens were compelled to serve in the 
British navy. 

3. Hitherto, this custom had been confined to private ves- 
sels, but in 180t, it was stated that four seamen, who had 
deserted from the British service, had entered on board the 
Chesapeake, an American frigate, carrying thirty-six guns, 
under the command of Commodore Barron. Captain Hum- 
phreys, commanding the Leopard, an English frigate of fifty 
guns, in compliance with an order from Admiral Burkley, 
followed the Chesapeake beyond the waters of the United 
States, and after demanding the deserters, fired a broadside 
upon the American frigate, by which four men were killed 
and sixteen wounded. The Chesapeake immediately struck 
her colors, and the four seamen were given up, although 
there were strong reasons for believing that three of t]ie 
number were native Americans. Commodore Barron, for 
neglect of duty, was suspended from the service for five 
years. • 

4. This outrage produced a general indignation throughout 
the country. The British government disavowed the orders 
of Admiral Burkley, and removed him from that station ; 
but shortly afterwards appointed him to another of more 
importance. In 1809, James Madison succeeded Mr. Jefl'er- 
son in the office of president. Madison, who had been a 
leading man in the late administration, pursued a course of 
policy similar to that of his predecessor. In April, arrange- 
ments were made with Mr. Erskine, the British minister, 
by which the American government again renewed the trade 
with England; but these arrangements were subsequently 
disavowed by the British cabinet. In the succeeding nego- 
tiations, Mr. Jackson having made use of some offensive 
language, Mr. Madison declined having any further corre- 
spondence with him. In this state of things, an unfortunate 
encounter took place between the President, an American 

To what was custom subject? — 3. In 1807, what Avas stated? What 
did Captain Humphreys do? What did the Chesapeake do? W^hat is 
said of Commodore Barron ? — 4. What is said of the British govern- 
ment? Who succeeded Mr. Jefferson? In April, what was done? 
What is said of Mr. Jackson ? In this state of things ? 
40 



470 UNITED STATES. 

vessel, and the Little Belt, an English sloop of war, which 
tended to increase the unfriendly feelings which had for 
some time existed between the two powers. 

5. The prospect of an amicable adjustment of the difficul- 
ties between the United States and Great Britain having 
been despaired of, the President, on the 1st of June, 1812, 
sent a message to Congress strongly recommending to that 
body a declaration of war. The principal grounds for this 
measure, as stated in the message, were the impressment of 
American seamen by the British ; the blockading the ports 
of their enemies, and suspicions that the Indians had been 
instigated to acts of hostilities by the British agents. The 
bill for declaring war passed the House of Representatives 
by a majority of thirty votes ; in the Senate it passed by 
nineteen to thirteen, and on the 18th of June, the day after 
it passed Senate, it was signed by the President. 

6. The minority in Congress opposed the declaration of 
war on the ground that it was unnecessary and impolitic ; 
and therefore they protested against the measure. A con- 
siderable portion of the people supported the views of the 
minority. The war, in consequence, was prosecuted with 
much less vigor and energy than it might, had there been 
more unanimity in its favor. The first military operation after 
the declaration of war, was the invasion of Canada lay Gen- 
eral Hull, on the 12th of July, at the head of two thousand 
men, but on the 16th of August he disgracefully surrendered 
his whole army into the hands of the British, Hull was 
subsequently tried and found guilty of cowardice and neglect 
of duty, and was sentenced to be shot; but in consideration 
of his age and revolutionary services, he was recommended 
to mercy, and the punishment of death was withdrawn by 
the President. 

T. A second invasion of Canada was attempted by Gen- 
eral Van Rensselaer, who crossed the Niagara River in No- 
vember with about one thousand men, and made an attack 
upon the British at Queenstown. After a severe action, the 
enemy was driven from the field ; but being strongly rein- 
forced they returned to the attack, and, owing to the fact of the 
militia positively refusing to obey the orders of their General, 

5. In 1812, what did the President do? What were the grounds for 
this measure? By what majority did the bill pass the House? And 
in the Senate ? — 6. What is said of the minority in Congress ? What 
was the first military operation? But on the 16th of August, what did 
he do ? What sentence was pronounced on Hull ? — 7. By whom was a 
second invasion of Canada attempted ? 



UNITED STATES. 471 

the Americans were defeated, and a part of their army made 
prisoners of war. 

On the 19th of August, the American frigate Constitution, 
commanded by Captain Hull, captured the British frigate 
Guerriere, after an action of thirty minutes. The loss of 
the Guerriere was fifteen killed and sixty -four wounded; 
that of the Constitution, seven killed and seven w^ounded. 
In October the frigate TJyiited States, commanded by Captain 
Decatur, took the British frigate Macedonia, and in the fol- 
lowing month, the British sloop Frolic was captured by the 
Wasp, commanded by Captain Jones ; but the Wasp was 
shortly afterwards taken by a British seventy-four. In 
December the Constitution, then under the command of 
Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate Java. 

8. The campaign of 1813 was attended with various suc- 
cess. Towards the end of January a detachment of about 
eight hundred men, under General Winchester, was surprised 
and defeated by the British and Indians under General 
Proctor at Frenchtown, on the Raisin ; and the greater part 
of those who surrendered to the enemy, amounting to about 
five hundred, were inhumanly massacred by the Indians. In 
April, York — now Toronto — the capital of Upper Canada, 
was taken by a detachment of Americans under General 
Pike, who was killed by the explosion of a magazine. The 
British lost on that occasion about seven hundred men in 
killed, wounded, and captured. In May an attack was made 
on SacketVs Harbor by the British, under Sir George Prevost, 
but they were repulsed with considerable loss by the Ameri- 
cans under General Brown. About the same time the 
Americans took Fort George; but the progress of their 
victories suffered a momentary check, by the capture of a 
considerable force under Generals Chandler and Winder, 
who were taken by surprise by the British under General 
Vincent. 

9. But the most brilliant achievement of this year was 
Perry's victory on Lake Erie, which took place on the 10th 
of September. The British fleet consisted of six vessels, 
carrying sixty-three guns ; that of the Americans, of nine, 
with fifty-six guns. For some time the contest appeared 

On the 19th of August, what took place ? What was the loss on each 
side ? What captures were afterwards made ? — 8. Towards the end of 
January, what took place? In April? And in May? What fort did 
the Americans take ? By what was their progress checked ? — 9. What 
was the most brilliant achievement of this year? What was the num- 
ber of vessels in each fleet ? Describe the battle. 



472 UNITED STATES. 

doubtful. The flagship of the Americans, at the beginning 
of the action, suffered severely, and being in a sinking con- 
dition, Perry descended into an open boat, and passing 
through a shower of balls, transported his flag to another 
vessel. After a tremendous conflict of three hours, victory 
declared in favor of the Americans, who reduced the British 
fleet to almost a total wreck. After this victory, General 
Harrison embarked his forces, and landed on the Canada 
shore, and on the 5th of October defeated the British, at the 
battle of the Thames, under General Proctor. In this battle 
the celebrated Indian Chief, Tecumseh, was killed by Colonel 
Johnson. 

10. Little more was done this year towards the conquest 
of Canada. General Wilkinson made an attack on Williams- 
burg, but was repulsed with considerable loss. The British 
fleet, under Admiral Cockburn, committed various depreda- 
tions in the south. The English, however, were more for- 
tunate on the ocean during this year than they had been 
previously. In February, the Hornet, commanded by Cap- 
tain Lawrence, captured the Peacock, a British sloop of 
war. In the course of the summer. Captain Lawrence was 
appointed to the command of the Chesapeake, which was 
captured by the Shannon, commanded by Captain Broke. 

11. The campaign of 1814 was distinguished by several 
important actions on the frontiers. On the 12th of July, 
the Americans, under General Brown, took Fort Erie, and 
shortly afterwards defeated the British under General Drum- 
mond, after an obstinate engagement at Chippewa ; and on 
the 25th of the same month, Generals Brown and Scott, at 
the well-contested battle of Bridgewater, defeated the Brit- 
ish, commanded by Generals Drummond and Rial. The loss 
of the enemy was nine hundred men, in killed, wounded, and 
prisoners. In September, a combined attack was made on 
Plattsburg by a British squadron, carrying ninety-five guns 
and one thousand and fifty men, commanded by Commodore 
Downie, and a land force under Sir George Prevost. But 
the naval force was totally destroyed by the American fleet, 
commanded by Commodore Macdonough. During the en- 
gagement of the fleets, the British were effectually repulsed 

After this, Avhat Avas done by Gen. Harrison ? In this battle, who was 
killed? — 10. Where did Gen. Wilkinson make an attack? What is said 
of the British fleet ? In February, what took place ? And in the course 
of the summer? — 11. For what Avas the campaign of this year distin- 
guished? On the 12th of July, what Avas done? And on the 25th? 
And in September ? 



UNITED STATES. 473 

in their attack on the forts of Plattsburg by the Americans 
under General Macomb. The whole loss of the British on 
this occasion amounted to two thousand five hundred men, 
while the total loss of the Americans, on land and water, did 
not exceed two hundred and thirty-one. 

12. In the month of August, a British fleet of sixty sail, 
under Admiral Cochrane, entered the Chesapeake, and landed 
a force of six thousand men, commanded by General Boss, 
on the banks of the Patuxent, about forty miles from Wash- 
ington. The British general immediately commenced his 
march towards the capital, but at Bladensburg- he met with 
a momentary repulse. At this point the Americans, under 
General Winde?^ had assembled to oppose his progress, and 
a slight engagement followed. At the commencement of the 
action, however, the American militia fled, leaving Commo- 
dore Barney, with a few eighteen pounders, and about four 
hundred rnarines, to sustain the whole weight of the conflict. 
Barney was at length wounded and taken prisoner. After 
this the British hastened to Washington, which they entered 
the same evening, burnt the capitol, the President's house, 
and other public buildings, and retired without molestation. 

13. About a fortnight after this event, a combined attack 
was made on the city of Baltimore by the British fleet of 
fifty sail, under Admiral Cochrane, and a land force of seven 
thousand men, under the command of General Ross. On 
the morning of the 12th of September, they effected a land- 
ing at North Point, about fourteen miles below the city. 
General Strieker was detached with about three thousand 
five hundred men, chiefly militia, to oppose their advance. 
General Ross, having preceded his army with a small recon- 
noitring party, was shot through the breast by one of the 
American riflemen, and falling into the arms of his aide-de- 
camp, he expired in a few minutes. The command then de- 
volved upon Colonel Brook, who led on the attack. After 
maintaining his position for an hour and a half against a 
great superiority of numbers, General Strieker drew off" his 
men, and retired to Worthington Mills, about half a mile in 
advance of the main body. In the meantime a furious as- 
sault was made upon Fort Mc Henry, by a discharge of bombs 

What was the loss on both sides ? — 12. In the month of August, what 
was done ? What took place at Bladensburg ? What was done by the 
militia? What is said of Barney? What places did they burn? — 13. 
On what city was an attack made? On the 12th of September, what 
was done ? What was the fate of Gen. Ross ? What did Gen. Strieker 
do ? In the meantime, what assault was made ? 
40* 



474 UNITED STATES. 

and rockets from the British squadron. But after the bom- 
bardment had continued for twenty-five hours, the attempt 
was abandoned, and the fleet having taken on board the forces 
under Colonel Brook, moved down the bay. 

14. Up to this period the British had discovered no dispo- 
sition to treat with the commissioners of the United States. 
The intelligence, however, of the defeat of their army at 
Plattsburg gave a new turn to the negotiation ; and a treaty 
of peace was signed at Ghent, on the 24th of December, 1814. 

While the negotiation was in progress, a large armament 
had been despatched, under the command of Sir Edward 
Pack'enham, for the purpose of making an attack upon the 
city of New Orleans. Fortunately for the city, which was 
in a very bad state of defence. General Jackson, the com- 
mander-in-chief of the forces in the southern district, ar- 
rived there on the 2d of December from Mobile. His pres- 
ence was immediately felt by the confidence which it inspired, 
and by the unanimity with which the people seconded his 
prompt arrangements. 

15. The British, after enduring incredible fatigue and dif- 
ficulties, at length succeeded in reaching the main entrench- 
ment of the Americans, which had been thrown up for the 
defence of the city. This they determined to take by an 
assault. Accordingly, on the 8th of January, 1815, they 
advanced to the attack, but were repulsed with immense 
slaughter by the Americans under General Jackson. In this 
memorable engagement the British lost seven hundred killed, 
and fourteen hundred wounded, and five hundred prisoners. 
Generals Packenham and Gihbs were mortally wounded. The 
loss on the part of the Americans is said to have amounted 
to only seven killed and six wounded. This was the last im- 
portant event of the war. The news of the treaty of peace, 
which arrived shortly after, put an end to further hostilities. 

16. In the treaty of Ghent, no allusion is made to the 
causes of the war. " Security against future aggression," as 
Grimshaw observes, " rests on a much firmer basis than the 
provisions of the most solemn treaty. Great Britain has 
been taught to appreciate the strength of the Republic. She 
will read in the history of the late struggle, the most con- 
vincing arguments against the invasion of neutral rights." 

14. When and where was the treaty of peace signed? While this 
was in progress, what citv was attacked ? What was fortunate for the 
city?— 15. AVhat is said of the British? What took place on the 8th of 
January? What was the loss on both sides? — 16. What is said of the 
treaty of Ghent? What does Grimshaw observe ? 



UNITED STATES. 475 



CHAPTER Y. 

ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE, ADAMS, JACKSON, VAN 
BUR EN, HARRISON, AND TYLER. 

MADISON having filled the office of President for two 
successive terms, was succeeded, in 181*7, by James 
Monroe. During the administration of Monroe, Florida was 
ceded to the United States by Spain, and erected into a ter- 
ritorial government in 1822. Mr. Monroe was succeeded in 
1825 by John Quincy Adams, whose administration for four 
years was not marked by any events of great importance. 
This year was rendered memorable for the visit of General 
Lafayette to the United States. Before his departure for 
France, Congress voted the illustrious Frenchman the sum 
of two hundred thousand dollars and a township of land, as 
a remuneration for his services during the Kevolutionary 
War, and as a lastinii: testimony of their gratitude. On the 
4th of July, 1826, while the nation was celebrating the fiftieth 
anniversary of its independence, John Adams died at Quinc}^, 
in Massachusetts, in the ninety-first year of his age, and on 
the same day, Thomas Jefferson expired at Monticello, in Vir- 
ginia, having completed his eighty-third year. 

2. In 1829, General Andrew Jackson succeeded Mr. Adams 
as President of the United States, and in his first message to 
Congress he called the attention of that body to the Bank of 
the United States, the charter of which was about to expire. 
In the spring of 1832, a bill passed both houses for rechar- 
tering the bank, with some new modifications and restrictions. 
The bill, however, was vetoed by the President, who, in his 
message returning the bill, declared the bank to be, in his 
opinion, inexpedient and unconstitutional, and announced his 
firm determination never to sanction, by his approval, the con- 
tinuance of that institution, or the reestablishment of any 
other on similar principles. 

3. On the 14th of November, 1832, Charles Carroll, of 
Carrollton, the last of the signers of the Declaration of Inde- 

Chapter V. — 1. By whom was Madison succeeded? Who succeeded 
in 1825? For what is this year rendered memorable? When and 
where did Adams and Jefferson die? — 2. In 1829, what took place? 
To what did he call the attention of Congress? In 1832, what passed? 
What is said of the bill ? — 3. What distinguished man died in November, 
1832? 



476 UNITED STATES. 

pendence, passed from this earth. He was a Catholic. His 
life was honored, and his end was happy.* 

4. General Jackson was succeeded in the presidency in 183t 
by Martin Van Buren, who held the office for four years. His 
administration was particularly distinguished by a treaty with 
the Sioux Indians, and also a treaty with the Winnebagoes, 
by which they agreed to relinquish all their land east of the 
Mississippi ; in consideration of which, the United States 
government agreed to pay them the sum of $2,500,000. 

5. On the 4th of March, 1841, General William Henry 
Harrison was inaugurated President of the United States, 
but died on the 4th of the following April. In consequence of 
his decease, the Vice-President, John Tyler, was inaugurated 
in his place, according to a provision of the Constitution. 

During the early part of the administration of Mr. Tyler, 
a domestic difficulty occurred in Rhode Island. An attempt 
was made to abolish the ancient charter, by which the State 
was governed, and also to adopt a constitution. The discon- 
tented party accordingly framed a constitution, elected a 
legislature, and chose Thomas W. Dorr as Governor. The 
attempt, however, to carry out the measure, was finally un- 
successful. The State was put under martial law. Dorr fled, 
but was afterwards taken, tried for treason, and sentenced to 
imprisonment for life. After lingering in captivity for some 
time, he was pardoned ; and in the meantime, a constitution 
for tne State was adopted. 

6. The other most important events during Mr. Tyler^s 
administration were the settlement of the north-eastern boun- 
dary line, between Maine and Canada, which was negotiated 
by Lord Ashburton on the part of England, and Mr. Webster 
on the part of the United States, — and the proposition for the 
admission of Texas into the Union. 

On the 4th of March, 1845, Mr. Tyler'' s term of office ex- 
pired, and Mr. James K. Polk, of Tennessee, who had been 
previously elected, succeeded to the office of President of the 
United States ; and Mr. George M. Dallas to that of Vice- 
President. 

* See Short Biographies of Eminent Personages. 

4. By whom was Jackson succeeded ? By what was his administra- 
tion distinguished ? — 5. On the 4th of March, what took place ? When 
did he die? What was done in consequence? During Mr. Tyler's ad- 
ministration, what took place ? What was framed ? What is said of the 
attempt? What became of Dorr?— 6. What Avere the other most im- 
portant events of Tyler's administration ? What took place on the 4th 
of March, 1845 ? 



UNITED STATES. 477 



CHAPTER VI. 

FOLK'S ADMINISTRATION, AND THE WAR WITH MEXICO.^ 
A.D. 1845-1849. 

ONE of the most important events which took place dur- 
ing Polk's administration, was the war with Mexico. 
Mexico had been for several centuries a Spanish province, 
but finally revolted against the power of Spain, and having 
established her independence, assumed a republican form of 
government. The people of the United States rejoiced at 
the event. They freely extended their hand to invite a sis- 
ter republic to take her stand among the nations of the 
earth, and were the first to acknowledge her independence. 

2. But scarcely had Mexico declared her independence 
from the crown of Spain, when she committed outrages on 
the persons and property of American citizens. While the 
citizens of the United States were engaged in carrying on a 
lawful commerce with Mexico, they were imprisoned, their 
vessels seized, and our flag repeatedly insulted. The gov- 
ernment of the United States had frequently demanded a 
redress in behalf of its injured citizens, but the demand was 
refused, or the subject evaded. It had jjeen hoped that, after 
the treaty of the 5th of April, 1831, the causes of complaint 
would have been removed, and that Mexico would be re- 
strained by the laws and usages of civilized nations. 

3. This was far from being the case ; for scarcely had two 
months passed away, when fresh outrages had been com- 
mitted. Indeed, so intolerable had they become, that Presi- 
dent Jackson, in his message to Congress, said, '' that they 
should not be any longer endured," and a messenger was de- 
spatched to Mexico to make a final demand for redress. The 
Mexican government expressed a desire to continue a friendly 
intercourse, and at the same time promised that the difficul- 
ties should be settled. 

In August, 1840, a joint commission was organized to set- 
tle the claims. The claims that were allowed before the 

Chapter VI. — 1. What was one of the most important events during 
Polk's administration ? What is said of Mexico ? Of the people of the 
United States ? — 2. What did Mexico commit ? While citizens of the 
United States, etc., what did they do ? AVhat was hoped after the treaty 
of 1831 ? — 3. What was again committed ? What did General Jack- 
son say and do? In 1840, what was done? What did the claims 
amount to ? 



478 UNITED STATES. 

board amounted to two million twenty-six thousand one 
hundred and thirty-nine dollars and sixty-eight cents ; and 
the amount unsettled, at that time, fell a little short of one 
million. 

4. On the 30th of January, 1843, a second convention was 
concluded between the two governments, by which it was 
determined, that the interest due on the awards, made in 
favor of our citizens, should be paid to them on the 30th 
of April, 1843, and the principal, with the interest accruing 
thereon, in five years, in equal instalments, every three 
months. With this treaty, however, Mexico failed to com- 
ply. The claimants, up to the period of the war, having 
only received the interest due on the 30th of April, 1843, and 
three out of the twenty instalments. This conduct on the 
part of Mexico may be regarded as one of the primary 
causes of the war. The annexation of Texas, however, was 
the immediate cause. 

5. Texas was formerly a province of Mexico, and had been 
settled principally by emigrants from the United States. In 
1834, her citizens becoming displeased with the unjust and 
tyrannical policy of the Mexican government, declared them- 
selves independent. A war ensued, which finally terminated 
in favor of the Texans, by the defeat of the Mexicans in the 
battle of San Jacinto, at which Santa Anna, the Mexican 
President, was taken prisoner, a. d. 1836. 

6. In 1845, the Texans, having intimated a wish to be ad- 
mitted into the Union as a State, a proposition was laid be- 
fore Congress for the annexation of the Republic of Texas 
to the United States ; and after a warm discussion on the sub- 
ject, the proposition passed, and Texas was admitted into the 
Union on the 29th of December, 1845. The boundary be- 
tween Texas and Mexico had never been properly defined. 
Texas held the Rio Grande, from its source to its mouth, to 
be the boundary line between the two countries; while 
Mexico regarded the river Nueces as the boundary, and 
claimed the territory between the two rivers. Such was the 
state of things when Texas was admitted into the Union. 

1. But the United States, having admitted Texas with the 

4. pn the 30th of January, 1843, what was concluded ? With what did 
Mexico fail to comply ? What is said of the claimants ? What is said 
of this conduct?— 5. What was Texas? In 1834, what took place? 
What ensued? How did it terminate? — 6. In 1845, what was done? 
When was Texas admitted into the Union ? What is said of the boun- 
dary between Texas and Mexico? What did Texas hold? What did 
Mexico regard ? — 7. What is said of the United States ? 



UNITED STATES. 479 

Kueces as her boundary, claimed the disputed territory, and 
of necessity became bound to settle the difficulty with the 
Mexican government. Mexico still maintained her right to 
the territory between the two rivers, and began to make 
preparations to invade the country. On receiving intelli- 
gence of this. President Polk directed General Taylor to 
take some convenient position beyond the river Nueces, in 
order to repel any invasion on the part of Mexico. Accord- 
ingly, General Taylor crossed the Nueces, and took up a po- 
sition at Point Isabel. Leaving a garrison at that place, he 
proceeded south to the banks of the Rio Grande, and erected 
a fort, called Fort Brown, opposite Matamoras, a town on 
the Mexican side of the river. 

8. On the 23d of April, General Taylor was informed that 
a large Mexican force had crossed the Rio Grande. On re- 
ceiving this information, he immediately despatched Captain 
Thornton, with a small force, to reconnoitre the position of 
the enemy ; but Thornton, in charging the Mexicans, was 
captured, and his men either killed or taken prisoners. On 
the 29th of the same month, information reached General 
Taylor that Point Isabel was attacked by the enemy, and in 
distress. The General immediately resolved to go to its re- 
lief, and to open a communication between the two posts. 
Accordingly, on the 1st of May, he left Fort Brown with 
the main body of his army on his march towards Point 
Isabel, leaving strict orders to the garrison of the fort to de- 
fend it to the last, if attacked by the enemy. 

9. But scarcely had General Taylor departed when the Mex- 
icans began to make preparations to annihilate the fort he 
had left behind, and bury beneath its ruins its brave de- 
fenders. Accordingly, on the 3d of May, the sacred quiet of 
Sunday was broken by the thunder of cannon. A furious 
assault was made upon the American works. From this 
time until Saturday, an almost incessant shower of shot and 
shell was poured upon the entrenchments. The situation 
of the garrison was critical in the extreme, shut up as they 
were within the walls of a temporary fortification, surrounded 
by a numerous and powerful enemy, cut off from all com- 

What did Mexico still do ? What did Polk direct ? What did Gen- 
eral Taylor do ? What did he erect ?— 8. On the 23d of April, of what 
was General Taylor informed ? What did he do ? What was the fate 
of Thornton ? On the 29th, what happened ? What did the General 
resolve? On the 1st of May, what did he do?— 9. What did the Mex- 
icans do ? On the 3d of May what took place ? What followed ? What 
is said of the situation of the garrison ? 



480 UNITED STATES. 

munication with their companions in arms, and having only 
four hundred rounds of ammunition. 

10. In the meantime General Arista sent a summons to 
the fort to surrender, with a declaration that if it were not 
obeyed within an hour, he would put all the garrison to the 
sword. A declaration like this, under the circumstances in 
which it was delivered, was calculated to shake the constancy 
of the stoutest hearts. But nothing could shake the iron 
resolution of the garrison. A council of war was called, 
and the awful summons laid before the members. When 
the question was asked as to what should be done, the unani- 
mous reply was — ^'Defend the fort till death; " and in a few 
moments every man was again at his post, prepared to carry 
out the resolution. 

11. In the meantime signal-guns had been fired, with a 
view of communicating to their companions at Point Isabel 
the death struggle that was going on at Fort Brown. As 
the heavy sounds broke upon the plains, they at length fell 
upon the ear of General Taylor. He listened for a moment, 
and remembering the smallness of the force he had left be- 
hind, and the number of the enemy, he immediately resolved 
to march to the aid of the garrison. On the 7th he com- 
menced his march, saying: ''If I meet the enemy, I will 
fight them." On the following day he arrived at a place 
called Palo Alto. At this point, the Mexicans had assembled 
to oppose his progress. Drawn up in the order of battle, their 
lines extending over a mile across a plain, bordered with 
chaparral ; their lancers were placed a little in advance, on 
the left; behind these they had stationed their infantry, 
while their heavy batteries were placed in the centre. 

12. When General Taylor came in sight of the enemy, he 
immediately drew up his little army in battle array. The 
conflict began at once, and for several hours raged with un- 
abated fury. The Mexicans, relying on their numbers and 
in the strength of their position, fought in every confidence 
of victory. On the other side, our men, aware of the cir- 
cumstances under which they fought, felt that victory de- 
pended on their skill and valor. The action continued with 

10. In the meantime what did General Arista do? What is said of 
this declaration ? What was called ? What was the unanimous reply ? 
— 11. What was done? What is said? What did he do and resolve? 
On the 7th, what did he do and say? Where did he arrive? At this 
place, who were assembled? Describe the position. — 12. What did 
General Taylor do ? What is said of the conflict ? What is said of the 
Mexicans? Of our men? What is said of the action? 



UNITED STATES. 481 

equal bravery on both sides until dark, when the Mexicans 
withdrew from their position, and retired into the chaparral, 
while General Taylor and his gallant army encamped for 
the night upon the field of battle. The forces of the Mexi- 
cans in this engagement amounted to six thousand men, 
while those under General Taylor did not exceed two thousand 
three hundred. The loss of the enemy in killed and wounded 
amounted to nearly four hundred, while the loss on the 
side of the Americans was only nine killed and forty-two 
wounded. 

13. The situation of General Taylor was exceedingly 
critical. His troops were weary after a hard fought battle. 
He was within a short distance of the fort, but far removed 
from reinforcements, while the enemy was reinforced, and 
preparing again to oppose his progress. In this state of 
things, he called a council of war. Some were for advancing, 
others were for entrenching where they stood, or for retreat- 
ing to Point Isabel. When all had spoken, the old General 
said, with a firmness that bespoke the greatness of his soul : 
^^ Gentlemen, if I live I will he at Fort Brown before night.'''' 
This determined the council ; and his oflBcers unanimously 
resolved to support his resolution. 

14. As soon as the morning dawned. General Taylor con- 
tinued his march towards Fort Brown, and came in sight of 
the enemy, drawn up in order of battle, at a place called 
Resaca de la Palma. The Mexicans had strongly fortified 
this point, by erecting a battery on the right of the road 
leading to it, another on the left, and a third in the centre. 
As our little army advanced, the enem3^'s batteries opened 
upon it a furious and destructive fire. Still they moved on- 
ward, pouring in a well-directed fire at every step. On the 
right they gained considerable advantage, while on the left, 
Ridgely's battery swept down the enemy at every discharge. 

15. From the beginning of the contest, our army had ad- 
vanced, and had driven the enemy from their original posi- 
tions in every part, except along the road where the centre 
battery was playing. This battery had caused considerable 

What of the Mexicans ? Of General Taylor and his army ? What 
was the number of the forces on each side ? What was the loss of the 
enemy? The loss on tlie side of the Americans? — 13. What is said of 
General Taylor ? Of his troops ? What was called ? What is said of 
some? Of others? What did the General himself say? — 14. As soon 
as the morning dawned, what did General Taylor do ? Where did he 
meet the IVIexJcans? As the army advanced, what happened? What 
did they still do? — 15. From the beginning, what is said? 
41 2F 



482 UNITED STATES. 

loss to our lines. At length, General Taylor seeing that the 
fate of the battle depended on the capturing of that battery, 
rode up to Captain May and ordered him to charge it at the 
head of his dragoons, adding these words: ^' Sir, you must 
take it.^^ May immediately turned to his companions and 
pointing to the battery, said : " Men, we must take that bat- 
tery.''^ In a moment. May, at the head of his gallant troop, 
moved along the road, in the very face of the enemy's blaz- 
ing battery, a cloud of dust marking their course. 

16. In a few moments more the bugle sounded to the 
assault ; but just at that instant a furious discharge swept 
through them, leaving nearly a third of the company pros- 
trate upon the ground. When smoke and dust cleared away, 
it v/as seen that the fortifications were in possession of the 
Americans. May, upon his powerful charger, leaped the 
ditch and breast-work of the battery, followed by his com- 
panions ; they rode down the men at their guns, broke through 
the Mexican lines, and took General Yega prisoner. At this 
sight a universal shout was raised from our army. The in- 
fantry rushed forward, driving the enemy before them. The 
fate of the day was decided ; and from that moment the bat- 
tle became a rout, and the Mexicans, terrified at the valor of 
their enemies, rushed furiously towards the river in the di- 
rection of Matamoras. 

17. While the conflict raged, the garrison of Fort Brown 
had listened with intense anxiety, as the shrill sound of the 
musket, and the heavy roar of the cannon vibrated across the 
plain, and as the struggle deepened, their anxiety increased. 
In breathless silence they awaited the issue of the fearful 
contest. But when they saw the enemy routed, and rushing 
in wild confusion over the field, pursued by our cavalry, they 
mounted the rampart, and waving their banner to the breeze, 
they sent up a shout of victory. Although more than three 
thousand shots had been fired at the fort, yet only two men 
had been killed. In this battle the Mexicans lost upwards of 
two hundred killed and six hundred wounded, together with 
two thousand stand of arms, six hundred mules, and the pri- 



What did General Taylor do, and say ? What is said of May? In a 
moment, what did he do? — 16. In a few moments more, what happened? 
When the smoke and dust cleared away, what was seen? What did 
May do? Whom did he take prisoner ? At the sight, what was done? 
What did the Mexicans do?— 17. While the battle raged, what is said 
of the garrison ? When they saw the enemy, etc., what did they do ? 
How many were killed in the fort ? In this battle, what did the Mexi- 
cans lose ? 



UNITED STATES. 483 

vate papers of General Arista. The loss on the part of the 
Americans was thirty-nine killed and eighty-two wounded. 

18. On the south side of the river, and directly opposite 
Fort Brown, stands the city of Matamoras, about twenty- 
eight miles from Point Isabel and six from Palo Alto, and 
at that time containing about ten thousand inhabitants. Gen- 
eral Taylor, after spending a few days at Fort Brown, resolved 
to make himself master of Matamoras. Accordingly, on the 
morning of the 17th, he sent a communication to the Mexi- 
can General, demanding a surrender of the place, together 
with all the public property in the city, and onl}^ giving him 
until three o'clock to consider the matter. The peremptory 
tone in which the demand was made had the desired effect ; 
for in a few hours afterwards, the Governor of the city sent 
a communication to General Taylor, stating that he might 
enter the city as soon as he thought proper. On the next 
day he took possession of Matamoras, but found it deserted 
byArista, the Mexican general, who, previous to his departure, 
had thrown a large number of cannons into wells. 

19. Although General Taylor had defeated the Mexicans 
in two decisive engagements, and was now in possession of 
Matamoras, still he found it impossible to follow up his suc- 
cess, owing to the want of troops and supplies, and he was 
obliged to remain inactive during a greater part of the sum- 
mer. In the meantime a large force, under the command of 
General Ampudia, had concentrated at Monterey, a city in 
New Leon, about one hundred and seventy miles from Mat- 
amoras. 

20. On the 1th of September, General Taylor, having re- 
ceived reinforcements; left Matamoras, and on the 19th of the 
same month he encamped at the Walnut Springs, a short dis- 
tance from Monterey. The city of Monterey was strongly 
fortified both by nature and art; its narrow streets were bar- 
ricaded with heavy masonry, while from the windows of the 
houses, and from the flat roofs, on which battlements were 
erected, a deadly fire could be poured forth upon an advanc- 
ing enemy. To the west, on a steep and craggy eminence, 
stood a fortification called the Bishop's Palace. Strong and 

What was the loss on the part of the Americans? — 18. Where does 
the city of Matamoras stand? What did General Taylor resolve? On 
the 17th, what did he do? What is said of this peremptory tone? 
W^hat followed? On the next day, what did he do? — 19. What is said 
of General Taylor? In the meantime, where had a large force concen- 
trated ?— 20. On the 7th, what did Taylor do ? What is said of the city, 
and how was it fortified ? Where was the Bishop's Palace ? 



484 UNITED STATES. 

massive forts were erected on the north and east, while the 
San Juan River flowed along the south. These fortifications 
were mounted with forty pieces of cannon, and manned by 
more than ten thousand men. 

21. Notwithstanding the strength of the position, and the 
great superiority of numbers, on the part of the Mexicans, 

General Taylor resolved to attack the city. Orders were 
given to make the attack in three divisions. The first was 
placed under General Twiggs, the second under General 

Worth, and the third under General Butler. On the 20th 
of September, General Worth was ordered to take a position 
on the Saltillo road, and to storm the heights of the Bishop's 
Palace ; but, owing to unavoidable delays. Worth was not able 
to reach his position until the morning of the 21st. 

22. On this morning the battle properly commenced, and 
raged but with little intermission for three days. On the 
first day, several of the principal forts were stormed and taken 
in the rear of the city ; and on the following day, the heights 
of the Bishop's Palace were carried, and the fort itself fell 
into the hands of the Americans. The 23d was marked by 
desperate fighting on both sides. The Americans still con- 
tinued to advance, but every inch of ground they gained was 
desperately contested ; they were compelled to drive back the 
enemy at the point of the bayonet. But nothing could check 
their impetuosity, or weaken their courage. Fortification 
after fortification yielded to their valor, until, on the night of 
the third day's battle, the troops of Worth and Quitman had 
nearly met in the principal plaza of the city. 

24. On the following morning General Ampudia surren- 
dered the city to General Taylor. An armistice was con- 
cluded for eight weeks, or until instructions from the Govern- 
ment could be received. 

Monterey was defended by forty-two pieces of cannon 
well supplied with ammunition, and garrisoned by ten 
thousand men. The forces of the Americans amounted to 
six thousand six hundred men. The loss on the side of the 
Mexicans was estimated at about one thousand in killed and 



By what were these fortifications mounted?— 21. What did General 
Taylor resolve ? What orders were given ? On the 20th of September, 
what was General Worth ordered to do ? What followed ? — 22. What is 
said of the battle ? On the first day, what were taken ? On the follow- 
ing day ? What is said of the 23d ? What is said of the Americans ? 
What were they compelled to do ? What is said of their valor ? — 24. 
What is said of General Ampudia? What was concluded? How was 
Monterey defended ? What was the loss on both sides ? 



UNITED STATES. 485 

wounded ; while the Americans lost one hundred and twenty- 
six killed and three hundred and fifty wounded. After this 
battle General Taylor established his headquarters at Mon- 
terey, while General Worth, with one thousand two hundred 
men, was directed to his position at Saltillo. 

25. In the meantime, General Santa Anna, who had pre- 
viously been banished from the country, was recalled and 
placed at the head of the Mexican government. The high 
military reputation of Santa Anna inspired the Mexicans 
with renewed confidence, and in a short time he collected 
around him an army of twenty thousand men, and encamped 
at San Luis Potosi, a strongly fortified city. 

While these things were going on, General Winfield Scott 
was ordered by the government to take command of all the 
land forces in Mexico ; at the same time he was directed to 
withdraw from General Taylor nearly all the regulars under 
his command, to aid in the reduction of the city of Vera Cruz. 
At the same time General Worth was ordered to leave his 
post at Saltillo, and march to Vera Cruz, while General 
Taylor was directed to fall back to Monterey, and await the 
arrival of reinforcements. 

26. About the middle of February, 1847, General Taylor, 
learning that the Mexican President was about to make an 
attempt to possess himself of the posts of communication 
between Saltillo and Matamoras, resolved to frustrate his 
design. On 20th of February he was encamped at Agua 
Nueva, about eighteen miles from Saltillo, with a force of 
five thousand men. Here he was informed that Santa Anna, 
at the head of twenty thousand men, was about twenty miles 
distant. On receiving this intelligence. General Taylor fell 
back to Buena Vista, about seven miles from Saltillo. The 
position selected by General Taylor was one of great 
strength. He thus describes it himself: 

21. " The road at this point becomes a narrow defile ; the 
valley on the right being full of impassable gullies, while on 
the left, rugged ridQ:es extend far back to the mountains. The 
ground was so broken as nearly to paralyze the artillery and 
cavalry of the enemy. Captain Washington's battery was 

Where did Taylor establish his headquarters ?— 25. In the meantime 
what took place ? What is said of his reputation ? What did he col- 
lect ? While these things were going on what took place ? What or- 
ders did General Worth receive ? What General Taylor ?— 26. In Feb- 
ruary of what was General Taylor informed, and what did he resolve? 
On the 20th of February, where did he encamp ? Where did he fall 
back to ? — 27. How does he describe the position ? 
41* 



486 UNITED STATES. 

posted to command the road ; another force, under Colonels 
Hardin and Bissel, occapied the crests of the ridge on the 
left and in the rear, and a small force, under Colonels Yell 
and Marshall, occupied the left, near the base of the mountain, 
while another body held the reserve." 

28. On the morning of the 22d of February, the Mexican 
army approached the American lines, and about eleven o'clock 
Santa Anna sent a communication to General Taylor in- 
forming him that he was surrounded by twenty thousand 
men, and demanding an immediate surrender. The messen- 
ger was politely received by General Taylor, but a positive 
refusal to comply with the demand returned to the Mexican 
General. Shortly after the reply of General Taylor was 
delivered to Santa Anna, the Mexican batteries were opened 
upon the American lines, but without doing any material 
injury. In sight of each other, the two armies remained 
within their lines until the close of the evening. While the 
anxious night of the 22d wore away, the combatants on 
either side stood at their arms, waiting with impatience the 
return of day. The Mexicans, actuated by all the emotions 
that patriotism and national pride can inspire, were resolved 
to drive back the invaders, and wipe off the disgrace that 
attended their arms on the plains of Palo Alto, Besaca de la 
Palma, and at Monterey ; while the Americans were resolved 
to sustain the honor of their country, or find a burial-place 
in the mountain ravines of Buena Vista. 

29. At daybreak on the following morning the battle of 
Buena Vista was commenced. 

30. The conflict raged all day, and both armies fought with 
desperate valor, but the Americans had the advantage. 
Night alone put an end to the contest. Our soldiers slept 
upon the battle-ground, with a determination to renew the 
conflict in the morning. But before the return of day the 
Mexicans had entirely disappeared, leaving their dead and 
dying upon the field of carnage ; they had retreated to Agua 
Niieva, and finally to San Luis Potosi. 

The loss of the Mexicans in this battle is estimated at 

Where was Washington's battery placed ? What place did Hardin 
and Bissel occupy ? — 28. On the 22d, wliat took place ? What did Santa 
Anna do ? W^liat is said of the messenger? After the reply, what fol- 
lowed? In sight of each other, what is said of the armies? While the 
night wore away, what is said of the combatants ? What is said of the 
Mexicans? Of the Americans ?— 29. At daybreak, what took place? — 
30. How long did the battle last ? What is said of our soldiers ? Before 
the return of day, what happened ? What was the loss of the Mexicans ? 



UNITED STATES. 487 

about two thousand in killed and wounded. The loss on the 
side of the Americans was two hundred and sixty-seven 
killed and four hundred and fifty-six wounded, and twenty- 
three missing. General Taylor now fell back on Monterey. 

31. Shortly after General Taylor had received orders to 
take up a position on the Rio Gi^ande, Congress had author- 
ized the President to accept the service of fifty thousand 
volunteers ; and at the same time to increase the regular 
army. On the 13th of May, 1846, President Polk issued a 
proclamation, stating " that by the act of the Republic of 
Mexico, a state of war existed between the two governments," 
and called upon the people of the United States to sup- 
port such measures as might be adopted for obtaining a 
speedy, just, and honorable peace. About this time the news 
of the splendid victories of Palo Alto and Eesaca de la Palma 
reached Washington, and Congress immediately passed a vote 
of thanks to General Taylor and to the officers and men 
under his command ; Taylor at the same time was raised to 
the rank of Major-General. 

32. On the 23d of November, 1846, General Scott received 
instructions from the Secretary of War to repair to Mexico, 
and to take the command of the forces there assembled. He 
immediately departed and reached the Bio Grande on the 
1st of January, 1847. The first operation of General Scott, 
after reaching Mexico, was the reduction of the city of Vera 
Cruz. But finding the troops under his command insufficient 
for that purpose, he withdrew nearly all the regular troops 
from the army under General Taylor. The rendezvous of 
the troops was at the island of Lobos, about one hundred and 
twenty-five miles north of the city of Vera Cruz. On the 
9th of March the troops reached the shore, a little below the 
city, and on the 22d everything was in readiness to com- 
mence the siege. 

33. Before commencing operations, however, General Scott 
sent a summons to the Mexican authorities to surrender the 
city, giving, at the same time, a certain period to the inhabi- 



What was the loss on the side of the Americans? — 31. Shortly after, 
etc., what had Congress authorized? On the 13th of May, 1846, what 
did Mr. Polk issue? About this time, what was received at Washing- 
ton ? What was passed by Congress ? — 32. On the 23d of November, 
what did General Scott receive? When did be reach the E.io Grande? 
What was his first operation? Finding his troops insufficient, what did 
he do ? Where did the troops assemble ? On the 9th of March, what 
took place? And on the 22d? — 33. Before commencing operations, 
what did Scott do? 



488 UNITED STATES. 

tants who wished to retire to depart, and to take with them 
what property they pleased. The summons to surrender 
being rejected, the American batteries immediately opened 
a destructive fire upon the city. The cannonading continued 
from this time, with some slight intermission, until the 
morning of the 26th. The scene is described as one of ter- 
rific grandeur. 

The darkness of the night was illumined by the blazing 
shells and flaming rockets, as they poured destruction over 
the ill-fated city ; while the roar of the cannon, the crash of 
the falling houses, and the shrieks of the wounded and dying, 
reechoed across the surrounding country. 

34. On the morning of the 26th, the Mexican governor of 
the city sent a messenger to General Scott, with overtures 
to surrender ; and on the following day articles of capitula- 
tion were signed. The city and the famous castle of San 
Juan de Ulloa, together with upwards of four thousand pris- 
oners, about seven hundred cannon, and nearly ten thousand 
stand of small arms, fell into the hands of the Americans. 

35. While victory was attending the American forces on 
land, their flag was equally triumphant on the ocean. The 
squadron under Commodores Sloat and Stockton was chiefly 
employed in subjugating California, while the squadron under 
Commodore Connor was chiefly engaged on the Gulf of 
Mexico. The cities of Tabasco and Frontiera were captured 
without making much resistance. On the day after the sur- 
render of Yera Cruz, an expedition was fitted out for the 
capture of Alvarado, under Commodore Perry, who de- 
spatched Lieutenant Hunter in advance with a small steamer. 
Hunter having arrived ofi" the bar, on the afternoon of the 
same day, opened a fire on the fort, which surrendered the 
next morning. He then proceeded up the river, captured 
four schooners, and on the following day anchored off Fla- 
coalparn, a city at that time containing seven thousand in- 
habitants, which immediately surrendered. When Commo- 
dore Perry arrived, a few days afterwards, he found these 
important places in the hands of the Americans. 

36. After the reduction of Vera Cruz, General Scott com- 



The summons being rejected, what followed ? How long did the can- 
nonading continue? What is said of the scene?— 84. On the morning 
of the 26th, what took place? What fell into the hands of the Ameri- 
cans? — 35. What did the squadron under Sloat and Stockton do? What 
cities were taken ? On the day after the surrender of Vera Cruz, what 
took place ? What did Hunter do ? AVhat did Perry find?— 36. After 
the reduction of Vera Cruz, what did General Scott do ? 



UNITED STATES. 489 

menced his march, with about six thousand men, towards 
the city of Mexico, the capital of the Republic. He pro- 
ceeded with little opposition from the 8th to the 16th of 
April, when he was informed that a strong force of the 
enemy was in front, strongly fortified, on the heights of a 
mountain. No position could be more favorable to the Mexi- 
cans than that which they had selected. The road by which the 
Americans v/ere obliged to ascend lay among lofty hills, whose 
tops w^ere strongly fortified and garrisoned. The highest of 
these peaks was Cerro Gordo, elevated more than a thousand 
feet, on w^hich stood a battery that commanded the road be- 
low. The whole of these formidable entrenchments were 
defended by fifteen thousand men, under the command of 
Santa Anna in person. 

37. On the 16th, General Scott arrived in front of the 
Mexican works, with about six thousand under his com- 
mand, but instead of advancing along the national road, a 
road was constructed vrhich wound around the base of the 
mountain, to the right, directly in the rear of the enemy, 
and on the evening of the Itth orders for the battle w^ere 
issued. During the night the Americans succeeded in drag- 
ging several pieces of their heavy cannon up several heights, 
and as soon as the morning dawned they commenced a tremen- 
dous fire upon the works of the enemy. An obstinate battle 
followed, in which the Mexicans were defeated, their fortifi- 
cations were stormed, and the stars and the stripes unfurled 
from the heights of Cerro Gordo. 

38. Santa Anna escaped on one of his mules, leaving his 
carriage in the hands of the Americans. The loss of the 
Mexicans in this battle was large : one thousand two hun- 
dred were killed and wounded, and more than three thousand 
prisoners were taken ; of this number, two hundred and 
eighty-eight were officers, and five were generals; besides 
five thousand stands of arms and forty pieces of cannon fell 
into the hands of the Americans. The Americans lost sixty- 
three killed and three hundred and sixty-eight wounded. 

39. On the 19th of April, General Worth entered Jalapa, 
a city situated on the national road, about fifty miles from 

On the 16th, of what was he informed ? What is said of the posi- 
tion? Of the road? What: was the highest of these? By what were 
these entrenchments defended? — 37. On the 16th, what took place? 
What did he do? On the 17th, what was done? During the night, 
what did the Americans do? What ensued? — 38. What is said of 
Santa Anna? Wliat was the loss of the Mexicans in this battle ? What 
did the Americans lose? — 39. On the 19th of April, what took place? 



490 UNITED STATES. 

Vera Cruz, and at that time containing a population of 
thirteen thousand inhabitants. From this place Worth 
pushed forward, and on the 22d took possession of the city 
and castle of Per-ote, from which the garrison had fled, leav- 
ing behind them sixty-four guns and mortars, eleven thou- 
sand and sixty-five cannon-balls, fourteen thousand three 
hundred bombs, and five hundred muskets. On the 15th of 
May, General Worth took possession of the city of Puebla, 
where General Scott remained for the greater part of the 
summer. Puehla is about sixty-six miles from the city of 
Mexico, and one hundred and eighty-six miles from Vera 

Cruz, and contained at that time about eighty thousand in- 
habitants. 

40. In the early part of August, General Scott resumed 
his march towards the capital of the Mexican Republic, hav- 
ing under his command about nine thousand men. He met 
with but little interruption until he reached Agotea, about 
fifteen miles from the city of Mexico. From this place, the 
road leading to the city is a causeway over a marsh, and the 
entrance to it commanded by a lofty hill, called El Pinnel, 
which had been strongly fortified. Batteries, mounting fifty 
guns, were placed along the sides of this causeway, and the 
whole defended by twenty-five thousand men, under the 
command of Santa Anna. In order to avoid these fortifica- 
tions, General Scott ordered a road to be cut around Lake 
Chalco, by which General Worth reached San Augustine on 
the nth, a town about nine miles south of the city of Mexico. 
A short distance from this place, on a high eminence, called 
Contreras, General Valencia was stationed with a strong 
force. 

41. On the 19th, continual skirmishes took place, but dur- 
ing the night the rain fell in torrents, and caused a temporary 
suspension of arms. Early on the following n^iorning, a furi- 
ous charge was made on the enemy's works. A desperate 
conflict ensued for a few hours. The Mexicans at length 
wavered, and finally fled in confusion, leaving the heights 
of Contreras in the hands of the Americans. The loss of 
the Mexicans in this battle was severe ; they left seven hun- 

On the 22d, what did Worth do ? And on the 15th of May ? Where 
is Puebla ?— 40. What did General Scott do ? What is said of his prog- 
ress ? From this place, what is said of the road ? What were placed 
along the sides ? How was it defended ? To avoid this, what did Scott 
order? What was stationed a short distance from this place? — 41. On 
the 19th, what took place? And on the following morning? What is 
Baid of the Mexicans ? 



UNITED STATES. 491 

dred of their companions dead upon the field of battle, and 
upwards of eight hundred were taken prisoners ; besides 
this, the Americans captured twenty-two pieces of cannon, a 
number of pack mules, and a large quantity of munitions of 
war. The loss of the Americans amounted to seventy killed 
and wounded. 

42. After this battle, our army passed rapidly towards 
Churubusco. At this point the main body of the Mexican 
army, to the number of twenty-seven thousand men, under 
the command of Santa Anna, had taken up its position. At 
one o'clock, in the afternoon, the battle commenced. The 
combatants of both sides rushed to the contest with the 
utmost ardor. The Americans, encouraged by the many 
battles which they had already gained, fought in the confi- 
dence that another victory would attend their arms ; the 
Mexicans felt that the fate of war was against them, never- 
theless they knew that if they failed on this occasion, their 
capital would fall into the hands of their enemies ; therefore 
they resolved to make a last and desperate resistance. 

43. As soon as the action became general the battle raged 
with the utmost fury ; the roar of the musketry and the 
thunder of the cannon shook the very hills, and vibrated for 
miles across the plains. The Americans advanced amidst a 
most terrific fire, and drove the enemy from their guns at the 
point of the bayonet. After the battle had raged for about 
two hours, the Mexicans were completely routed, and fled 
with precipitation to th-e walls of their capital. This battle 
was attended with heavy loss on both sides. The Mexicans 
lost nearly two thousand in killed, wounded, and prisoners ; 
while our loss amounted to one thousand and fifty-five in 
killed and wounded. 

44. On the 20th, a negotiation was opened between the 
two armies, which resulted in an armistice, providing for a 
cessation of hostilities, and an exchange of prisoners. Dur- 
ing the armistice, Mr. Trid, the American commissioner, 
offered a proposition in behalf of his government, for set- 
tling the difBculties between the two countries. The propo- 
sition was rejected by Mexico, and General Scott, finding 
that the Mexicans were fortifying the city, in direct viola- 

What was the loss on both sides? — 42, After this battle, wliat did 
our army do ? What is said of this place ? What is said of the com- 
batants? Of the Americans? The Mexicans? — 43. Wliat is said of 
the battle? Of the Americans? Of the Mexicans? What was the 
loss on both sides? — 44. On the 20th, wliat took place? During the 
armistice, what was offered ? What followed its rejection ? 



492 UNITED STATES. 

tion of the armistice, declared it at an end on the 10th of 
September, and made immediate arrangements for recom- 
mencing hostilities. 

45. In the meantime the Mexicans had strongly entrenched 
themselves at a place called Molino del Bey, or the Kirig-s 
Mill. The place was surrounded by a regular jBeld-work, 
mounted by ten pieces of artillery, and the whole defended by 
ten thousand men. The fortification, however, was stormed 
and taken by General Worth, at the head of three thousand 
seven hundred Americans. On the 13th, the fortress of Cha- 
pultepec, which was considered the key to the Mexican lines, 
was taken by the Americans, after a desperate conflict. 

46. After the fall of Chapultepec, Generals Smith and 
Quitman marched rapidly on towards the city of Mexico, 
although they suffered severely from the enemy's battery 
stationed along the road ; and on the 14th, they entered the 
city, driving the enemy before them at the point of the bay- 
onet. In the meantime. General WoiHh^s division had filed 
round to the left, and entered the city by the gate of San 
Gosmo. The next morning at sunrise the American forces 
marched into the great Plaza, in front of the Cathedral, and 
precisely at seven o'clock, on the 15th of September, 1847, 
the Star-Spangled Banner was elevated in triumph over the 
capital of the Mexican Republic. Of the ten thousand troops 
with which General Scott left Puebla, only about seven 
thousand remained to witness his entry into Mexico. 

47. After the fall of the capital, no important battles took 
place ; skirmishing continued for a few days, but hostilities 
gradually subsided. A treaty of peace between Mexico and 
the United States was signed by the Plenipotentiaries of both 
nations at the city of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, on the 2d of 
February, 1848. This treaty was afterwards amended by 
the Congress of the United States, and ratified by Mexico ; 
and the respective ratifications w^ere interchanged at Quere- 
taro on the 3d of May, 1848. By this treaty the boundary 
line between Mexico and the United States commences in 
the Gulf of Mexico, three leagues from land, and proceeds 

45. In the meantime, what was done ? What is said of the place ? 
What is said of the fortifications ? On the 13th, what took place ? — 46. 
After the fall of Chapultepec, what followed? In the meantime, what 
did General Worth's division do ? What took place the next morning ? 
Of the ten thousand troops, etc., how many remained ? — 47. After the fall 
of the capital, what followed ? Where and when was a treaty of peace 
signed ? What is further observed ? By this treaty, what is the boun- 
dary between the two countries ? 



UNITED STATES. 493 

thence up the middle of the Rio Grande, to the southern 
boundary of Mexico ; thence to the western termination ; 
from that along its western line until it intersects the river 
Gila, down that river until it empties into the Rio Colerado, 
then across the Colerado, following the division line between 
Upper and Lower California to the Pacific Ocean.* 



CHAPTER VII. 



THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR, FILLMORE, AND 
PIERCE.— A. D. 1849-1857. 

THE presidential election, in 1848, resulted in the choice 
of General Zachary Taylor to the office of President of 
the United States. Millard Fillmore, of New York, was at 
the same time elected Vice-President. John M. Clayton, of 
Delaware, was appointed Secretary of State ; and William 
M. Meredith, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury. 
During the previous Congress, a new office, called the Home 
Department, and intended to aid the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, had been created, and the President selected Thomas 
Ewing, of Ohio, to fill the newly created department. 

* We can here glance at the history of Mexico since the year 184S. 
It may be called the land of revolutions. One President seemed to fol- 
low another only to be deposed, abuse his office, or add to the lamenta- 
ble confusion. In 1861, Benito Juarez, President of the Republic, in- 
volved his country in a foreign war by various arbitrary measures, such 
as annulling or suspending obligations contracted by the Mexican gov- 
ernment in Europe, despoiling resident foreigners, and also by the un- 
just and illegal spoliation of the property of the Church. France, Eng- 
land, and Spain resolved to act jointly in obtaining satisfaction for the 
common wrong, and sent a fleet to Mexico. The expedition was success- 
ful, and the allies gained a footing on the eastern coast of Mexico ; but 
some disagreement having arisen between them, England and Spain 
withdrew their vessels, and the French carried on the contest alone. 
We have already given an account of their successes in the history of 
France. It was resolved to establish an empire, and Maximilian, brother 
of the Emperor of Austria, was offered the crown. It was accepted. He 
entered the city of Mexico amid the acclamations of the people in May, 
1864. But after a time difficulties arose. Napoleon III. withdrew his 
troops. Maximilian was left alone with a divided people. A struggle 
began. Maximilian was defeated, betrayed, and basely shot in June, 
1867. Mexico once more became a republic. 

Chapter VII. — 1. Who were elected President and Vice-President 
in 1848? During the previous Congress, what had been done? 
42 



494 UNITED STATES. 

2. The short administration of President Taylor was not 
marked by any events of striking importance. During the 
first year after his election, the people of California met and 
framed a State constitution, and in the following Congress 
applied for admission into the Union. In the meantime the 
discussion of the slavery question caused much excitement 
throughout the country. In April, 1850, a select committee 
was appointed in the Senate of the United States to prepare 
a bill for the purpose of producing harmony in the national 
councils. Of this committee, Henry Clay was chairman. 
The chief features of the bill reported by this committee, and 
known as the "Omnibus Bill," were the admission of Cali- 
fornia, a territorial Government of Utah and New Mexico, 
and the abolition of the slave-trade in the District of Colum- 
bia. After a protracted discussion,, the bill was reduced to 
an act for the establishment of a territorial government in 
Utah. 

3. On the 9th of July, 1850, the whole country was thrown 
into mourning by the sad announcement of the death of Pres- 
ident Taylor. This melancholy event took place at the pres- 
idential mansion, in Washington, after a short illness of five 
days. 

4. By the death of General Taylor, the Vice-President, 
Mr. Fillmore, under the provisions of the Constitution, be- 
came President of the United States. The cabinet of the 
late President having resigned, a new one was formed, with 
Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, as Secretary of State. 
During the following session of Congress, the compromise 
measures, which had been embraced in the " Omnibus Bill," 
were brought forward separately, and received the sanction 
of that body, thus happily allaying the excitement that had 
so much agitated the country. 

5. During the spring of 1851 a second expedition for the 
invasion of Cuba was projected. The President, on receiving 
intelligence of the intended expedition, issued a proclamation 
warning all those of our citizens who should take part in it, 
that by the very act of thus violating the laws of neutrality, 
they would put themselves beyond the protection of the 
United States. Notwithstanding this warning, a body of 

2. What was done during the first year of his administration ? What 
question caused much excitement, and what was proposed ? What were 
the features of this bill ? — 3. When and where did President Taylor die ? 
— 4. Who became President on the death of General Taylor? During 
the following year, what was done ? — 5. What was projected in the spring 
of 1851? 



UNITED STATES. 495 

about four hundred and sixty men, under the command of 
General Lopez, sailed from New Orleans in August, and 
landed in Cuba. Contrary to their expectations, the people, 
instead of uniting with them, fled at their approach and re- 
fused to give any assistance ; and the invaders being attacked 
by a superior force, were either killed in battle or made 
prisoners. Lopez having fallen, v/ith the rest, into the hands 
of the Cuban authorities, was conducted to Havana and ex- 
ecuted. The Americans who survived, after remaining some 
months in prison, were liberated and returned to this country. 

6. In June, 1852, the Democratic convention met in Bal- 
timore and nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, 
for the office of President of the United States, and William 
R. King, of Alabama, for the Vice-Presidency ; and at the 
election in the following November, these gentlemen were 
elected to these respective offices. 

This year was rendered memorable for the deaths of two 
distinguished men. On the 29th of June, Henry Clay died 
in Washington, and in the following October, Daniel Web- 
ster departed this life at his residence in Massachusetts. 

1. On the 4th of March, 1853, President Pierce entered 
on the duties of his office. He selected Wm. L. Marcv, of 
New York, as Secretary of State. On the 18th of April 
following, Mr. King, the Yice-President, died shortly after 
his return from Cuba, w^here he had gone for the benefit of 
his health. 

During the early part of the year 1853, a dispute occurred 
between the United States and Mexico, respecting a portion 
of territory called the Mesilla Yalley. General Lane, Gov- 
ernor of New Mexico, took possession of the disputed terri- 
tory, and the Mexican government prepared to enforce its 
right by an appeal to arms. The difficulty, however, was 
happily settled by Mexico yielding her right to the Mesilla 
Yalley, and granting to the United States the right to build 
a railroad across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, for the sum of 
ten million dollars. 

8. During the year 1854, several important treaties were 
concluded by the United States with foreign governments. 
With a view of establishing a friendly and commercial inter- 

What was the result and the fate of Lopez ? — 6. Who was elected 
President and Vice-President in 1852? By what was this year ren- 
dered memorable ? — 7. What took place on the 4th of March ? When 
did the Vice-President die ? In the early part of 1853, what happened 
between the United States and Mexico? — 8. In 1854, what important 
treaties were signed ? 



496 UNITED STATES. 

course between the IJnited States and Japan, Commodore 
Perry bad been sent with an American fleet to that country, 
and succeeded in arranging a treaty of peace and amity. 
This treaty was concluded and signed on the 31st of March, 
1854, and by it the Japanese ports of Simoda and Hakodadi 
were opened to American vessels to obtain provisions and 
fuel ; and safety and protection were guaranteed to all Amer- 
ican seamen cast upon the Japanese coast, besides the right 
of a place of burial for Americans who might die in that 
country. About the same time a reciprocal treaty of com- 
merce between the United States and the British provinces 
of North America was concluded, and a treaty with Russia, 
by which that government recognized the doctrine that "free 
ships make free goods," and that the property of neutrals, 
unless contraband articles, should be respected, even if carried 
on board enemies' vessels. 

9. During the early part of the year 1854, some difficulty 
occurred between the IJnited States and the authorities of 
San Juan, or Greytown, on the Mosquito shore. The Transit 
Company had demanded of the authorities of the town an 
indemnity for certain property, alleged to have been stolen 
or destroyed by natives, and during the controversy a negro 
was shot by an American named Smith, the captain of a 
steamer running on the river. An attempt was made to 
arrest the offender, but it was resisted on the part of the 
passengers, among whom was Mr. Borland, the United States 
minister to Nicaragua. Mr. Borland subsequently going on 
shore, was assailed by the inhabitants of Greytown, and in 
the melee that followed was struck in the face by a bottle. 

10. As soon as this outrage was made known at Wash- 
ington, orders were dispatched to Captain Hollins, com- 
mander of the sloop-of-war Cyane, not only to demand an 
apology from the authorities of Greytown, but also an in- 
demnity to the Transit Company. No regard being paid to 
these demands, Hollins, after several days' delay, opened his 
batteries against the town, and in a few hours completely 
destroyed it. This conduct on the part of our government 
was severely censured, and denounced as an act of severity 
entirely uncalled for by the circumstances of the case. 

11. During the last year of President Pierce's administra- 

At the same time what other treaty was concluded ? — 9. During the 
early part of 1 854, what difficulty occurred between the United States 
and San Juan? — 10. What orders did Captain Hollins receive, and what 
followed? — 11. In 1856, what proclamation did the President issue in 
relation to Kansas? 



UNITED STATES. 497 

tion troubles of a serious nature arose in Kansas. In Feb- 
ruary, 1856, the President issued a proclamation stating that 
combinations had been formed in the territory to subvert the 
legal authority, and warned all persons engaged therein to 
desist therefrom, and at the same time directed the United 
States troops at Forts Leavenworth and Riley, to be in 
reiadiness to obey the requisition of Governor Shannon, in 
maintaining the peace of the territory. The free State men 
had, in October previous, met at Topeka, and framed a con- 
stitution excluding slavery from the territory, and under this 
constitution they elected a governor, lieutenant-governor, 
and a State legislature. This body met at Lawrence, and 
elected Governor Reeder and General Lane United States 
Senators. In the meantime, indictments for treason were 
made out against Mr. Robinson, the free State governor, who 
immediately fled from the territory. Shortly after this. 
Sheriff Jones, who had some time previously been severely 
wounded in an attempt to arrest two persons at Lawrence, 
entered that town at the head of a large force, and after 
taking all the arms in the place, ordered the hotel and 
printing-office to be destroyed, they having been declared 
nuisances by the grand jury. At the same time the house 
of Governor Robinson was destroyed, and numerous acts 
of murder and robbery were subsequently committed through- 
out the territory. 

12. In the meantime a new election for delegates for a 
convention to frame a State constitution took place. This 
body met at Lecompton in the fall of 185 1, and, after several 
weeks' deliberation, adopted a constitution tolerating slavery 
within the" territory. This constitution was submitted to 
and ratified by the people, and during the subsequent Con- 
gress application was made for the admission of Kansas into 
the Union under the Lecompton constitution. After a long 
discussion in Congress, and much excitement throughout the 
country, a bill was passed on the 30th of April, 1858, admit- 
ting Kansas with the Lecompton constitution, with a proviso 
that the question of slavery should first be submitted to a 
vote of the people of the territory, and if the majority of the 
votes were in favor of the slavery clause, then Kansas should 
be admitted with the Lecompton constitution ; but if the 
slavery clause should be rejected, the question of her admis- 

What did the free State men do? What is related of Sheriff Jones? 
— 12. In the meantime, what took place ? After a long discussion, what 
did Congress do ? What was the result of the election ? 
42* 2G 



498 UNITED STATES. 

sion was to be considered as rejected. This question was 
subsequently submitted to the people, and the result was the 
rejection of the clause establishing slavery in the territory. 

13. In the fall of 1856 an election for President and Vice- 
President took place, and, after an exciting contest, resulted 
in the election of the Democratic candidates, James Buchanan 
and John C. Breckinridge, to the offices of President and 
Vice-President of the United States. The other candidates 
were Fremont, Republican, and Fillmore, Native American. 
The latter received only the electoral vote of a single State, 
that of Maryland. Buchanan was inaugurated on the 4t|i of 
March, 1857, and selected Cass, of Michigan, as Secretary 
of State. 



CHAPTER VIIL 



ADMINISTRATIONS OF BUCHANAN AND LINCOLN; CIVIL 
WAR ; ASSASSINATION OF THE PRESIDENT AND END OF 
THE WAR.— A. D. 1857-1865. 

IF Mr. Buchanan's administration was peaceful, still the 
clouds that had been gathering for years on the political 
horizon arrived at their culminating point daring the latter 
part of his term, and were soon to burst, deluging the coun- 
try with blood, and plunging it into all the horrors of civil 
war. The antagonism between the anti-slavery party at the 
North and the Southern slaveholders had hitherto expended 
itself in violent speeches on the floor of Congress, and no 
less violent and inflammatory appeals to the passions of the 
people, through the agency of the press. The two parties 
were brought in presence, and the threatened conflict made 
imminent, by the election of Abraham Lincoln, the Repub- 
lican candidate, to the Presidency, November 4, 1860. 

2. The Southern States took alarm at this advent to 
power of a party inimical to the institution upon which they 
believed their prosperity to rest. The oft-mooted question 
of secession was now openly discussed, and conventions were 

13. In 1856, who were elected to the offices of President and Vice- 
President ? Who were the other candidates ? When did Mr. Buchanan 
take his seat? 

Chapter VIII. — 1. What happened towards the close of Mr. Bu- 
chanan's administration ? — 2. How did the Southern States receive the 
election of Mr. Lincoln ? 



UNITED STATES. 499 

called in the several States, which, in all cases, by a large 
majority, voted an ordinance of secession. The leading 
States in this movement were South Carolina, Mississippi, 
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These 
were subsequently followed by Virginia, Arkansas, North 
Carolina, and Tennessee. Kentucky saw her people divided, 
and her soil desecrated by local civil strife. The represen- 
tatives of the seceding States having met in convention at 
Montgomery, Alabama, organized the Provisional Govern- 
ment of the Confederate States of America, and elected Jef- 
ferson Davis, of Mississippi, President. 

3. This final step, however, was not taken before an effort 
to conciliation had been made. The Southern Representa- 
tives in Congress were instructed to demand guarantees for 
the future from the friends of the incoming administration. 
Virginia, the " Mother of States," remained for some time 
as a voluntary mediator. But the secret determination of 
both parties made the result inevitable. The seceding States 
had, as a precautionary measure, taken possession of most 
of the Federal ports on their respective territory, as well as 
of all the public property. The United States, however, 
still retained possession of several strong positions, such as 
Fortress Monroe, in Virginia ; Fort Pickens, in Florida, and 
Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. An attempt having 
been made by the government to send supplies to the last- 
named fort, it Was attacked on the 12th of April, 1861, by 
the Confederate batteries of Charleston, commanded by Gen- 
eral Beauregard. The fort surrendered, and was evacuated 
on the 13th. This was the first gun fired. It was des- 
tined, unhappily, to be the signal of the most disastrous war 
that has ever raged in any country. The events are, per- 
haps, too recent to allow the historian to write an impartial 
appreciation of their causes and results. We must be con- 
tent to record facts simply as we find them, and let posterity 
pass judgment. 

4. The first act of President Lincoln, after the fall of Fort 
Sumter, was the issuing of a proclamation, calling for sev- 
enty-five thousand volunteers to put down the Rebellion. 
Little was it thought then, how many hundred thousands 
would be required to carry on the mighty struggle during 
the four years it lasted. The first shock of arms took place 

What States seceded? What action did they take? — 3, What meas- 
ures did the seceding States adopt ? What was the first act of hostility ? 
— 4. What was Mr. Lincoln's first act ? Where did the first shock of 
arms take place ? 



500 UNITED STATES. 

on the soil of Yirginia, on the 10th of June, 1861. General 
B. F. Butler having started from Newport News, with a 
column of five thousand infantry, to march on Yorktown, 
found one thousand two hundred Confederates under General 
(then Colonel) Magruder, intrenched at a church called 
Great Bethel. The advance of the Federals, led by Colonel 
Winthrop, charged the breastworks in gallant style, but were 
repulsed with great slaughter. They returned to Newport. 
On the 21st of July was fought the first grand battle, made 
famous under the name of Battle of Manassas. The Federals, 
under General McDowell, met the Confederates under Gen- 
erals Beauregard and Johnston, near a stream called Bull 
Run. The result was the total rout of the Union army, 
which fell back in disorder upon Washington. The Confed- 
erates, it is said, could have taken the capital if they had 
pursued the enemy, but they lacked cavalry, and remained 
content with the possession of the field of battle, thereby 
reaping no fruits from their victory. On the 21st of Sep- 
tember, the battle of Ball's Bluff, Yirginia, was fought. The 
Union forces, under General Banks, were defeated by the 
Confederates, under Colonel Jenifer. The Federal General 
Baker was killed whilst gallantly leading his division. 

5. During the remainder of the year 1861, little fighting 
was done ; but the Federal government was preparing earn- 
estly for the campaign of 1862. The Federals opened this 
campaign with four hundred and fifty thousand men, oper- 
ating simultaneously in Yirginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, 
and Kentucky. The Confederates do not seem to have been 
fully awake to the magnitude of the task before them, al- 
though their armies were swelled by enthusiastic volunteers 
during the first year. These were twelve-month troops, and 
their time was nearly out, when their government passed 
the Conscription Bill, calling to arms all men under thirty- 
five years of age. A series of disasters to the Southern arms 
inaugurated the year 1862. General Grant attacked Fort 
Donelson, on the Cumberland River, and took it, after four 
days' siege, the Confederate General, Buckner, surrendering 
with the garrison. In April following. Grant being at Pitts- 
burg Landing with his army, awaiting the arrival of General 
Buell's corps, was suddenly attacked by the Confederates, 
under Generals Beau'regard and Albert Sidney Johnston. 

With what result? What was the first great battle of the war? 
What battle was next fought ? — 5. What was the situation during the 
first year of the war? What success was gained by General Grant 
in 1862 ? What occurred at Pittsburg Landing ? 



UNITED STATES. 501 

The Southerners had made'a forced march to surprise the 
enemy before the arrival of the expected reinforcements, and 
very nearly succeeded in the daring attempt, for the}' took 
part of the Federal camp, many cannon and prisoners ; but 
the darkness, for a time, put an end to the conflict, and dur- 
ing the night General Buell arrived. The tables were 
turned when the battle recommenced next morning. The 
Confederate forces, in their turn, were inferior in number, 
and worn with the fatigue of the previous day. They were 
compelled to abandon the field, after losing some of the artil- 
lery taken in the first battle. The most stubborn valor was 
evinced in both fights, and the slaughter on both sides was 
terrific. The Confederates had to mourn the loss of one of 
their best and bravest generals, Albert Sidney Johnston. 
These battles are known as the first and second battle of 
Shiloh. 

6. A few days after this disaster, the Confederacy re- 
ceived another damaging blow. Commodore Farragut's 
fleet having succeeded in passing the forts at the mouth of 
the Mississippi, compelled the surrender of New Orleans, 
evacuated by General Lovell. The city was undefended, 
and General Butler, w^ho arrived soon after the fleet, took 
quiet possession. By the fall of this important city, the Con- 
federacy lost all hopes of controlling influence in the West, 
although they still prevented the free navigation of the Mis- 
sissippi. 

7. Whilst these events were transpiring in the South-west, 
a Federal army of one hundred and twenty thousand, under 
General McClellan, was directed upon Richmond, Yirginia, 
which had been made the capital of the Confederacy. This 
army, concentrated at Fortress Monroe, took up its march 
across the Peninsula. The first obstacle they met was at 
the old city of Yorktown, famous in history as the place 
where Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army to Washing- 
ton. This point had been strongly fortified by General 
Magruder, and although he had but a small garrison, the im- 
posing aspect of the works arrested General McClellan, when 
he arrived on the 4th of April, and gave time for the army 
of Yirginia, under General Joseph Johnston, to be sent hur- 
riedly to Yorktown. McClellan commenced siege operations, 

Kelate the two battles of Shiloh. — 6. What happened a few days 
later ? What was the consequence, to the Confederates, of the fall of 
New Orleans? — 7. What General marched on Eichmond ? What road 
did he take ? What obstacle did he meet ? What about the siege of 
Yorktown ? 



502 UNITED STATES. 

and labored during the whole month of xipril ; but just as he 
was ready for a general assault, Johnston evacuated Yorkto wn, 
May 3d, 1862. The invading army lost no time in pursuing 
the Confederate columns, and overtook them near Williams- 
burg. From that place to Richmond, the march was marked 
by a number of partial engagements, Johnston's policy seem- 
ing to have been to weaken the Federal army, by strategic 
movements calculated to delay them near the noxious swamps 
of the Chickahominy. At last General McClellan arrived 
almost in sight of Richmond, and then commenced the series 
of bloody conflicts known as the "seven days' fights." Gen- 
eral Robert E. Lee had succeeded Johnston in command, 
the latter having been badly wounded, and now the Con- 
federates took the offensive. Stonewall Jackson's corps, 
secretly recalled from north-western Virginia, fell on Mc- 
Clellan's rear, and the pursuing army now became the pur- 
sued. General McClellan tried to reach the James River, 
where he hoped to establish a new base of operations, and 
General Lee strained every resource to cut him off. At last, 
General McClellan reached a strong position at Malvern Hill, 
and saved the remnant of his once fine army, for the con- 
tinual losses, not merely by battle, but from disease, had 
terribly reduced its ranks. 

8. The Confederates now soncrht to transfer the war to 
Northern soil. Lee drove back General Pope, and won the 
second battle of Manassas — or Bull Run — on the 30th of 
August. He entered Maryland, and was opposed by Mc- 
Clellan at Antietam, September Itth. This dreadful battle 
was a Federal success, and Lee fell back, on the following 
night, across the Potomac. The slaughter on both sides was 
terrible. In November, General Burnside took command of 
the Federal army, and commenced another march on Rich- 
mond. He met Lee at Fredericksburg on December 18th, 
and was led on to attack the Confederate works near the 
city. Received by a fearful fire of infantry and artillery, 
his army was badly cut up, and compelled to evacuate 
Fredericksburg. During the same month the Confederates 
suffered a great reverse in Tennessee, in the loss of the bat- 
tle of Murfreesboro. The Union forces were commanded 

How was the retreat of the Confederates conducted ? What General 
took command of the Southern army? What occurred before Rich- 
mond ? Where did General McClellan save his army ? — 8, What gen- 
erals commanded at the second battle of Manassas? When was it 
fought? What about the battle of Antietam? The battle of Freder- 
icksburg? What battle was fought in Tennessee? 



UNITED STATES. 503 

by General Rosecrans, and the Confederates by General 
Bragg. 

9. On the 1st of January, 1863, President Lincoln's famous 
Proclamation of Emancipation went into effect. It declared 
that all slaves in the States, or parts of States, " in rebellion 
against the United States" should be free forever. No im- 
portant military movements took place until the spring, when 
General Hooker was put in command of the Federal Army 
of the Potomac. He met General Lee, on the 3d of May, 
at Chancellorsville, on ground of his own choosing, and gave 
him battle. The Federals were driven back across the Rap- 
pahannock, the Confederates retaining the dearly-bought 
field. This victory was overshadowed by the deepest gloom, 
for Stonewall Jackson, one of the most beloved and daring 
of Southern leaders, was killed, accidentally, after the battle, 
by the fire of his own pickets, who, in the darkness, mistook 
him for the enemy. 

10. The Confederates, struggling against dreadful odds, 
their ports blockaded, their soil overrun and devastated, re- 
solved to make a supreme effort to transfer the scene of woe 
to Northern soil. To this effect, General Lee once more 
crossed the Potomac, and marched northward, through 
Maryland and Pennsylvania. At Gettysburg, in the latter 
State, he met the Federals, under General Meade. There 
was fought the most terrific battle of the war. It com- 
menced on the morning of the 1st of July, and ended on the 
evening of the 3d. During these three days of carnage, vic- 
tory seemed to waver between the contending armies ; finally, 
General Lee, having exhausted his ammunition, was com- 
pelled to withdraw from the conflict. He had lost 30,000 
men in killed, prisoners, and stragglers. The Federals, also, 
had suffered to such an extent that they did not molest the 
retiring foe. 

11. The adverse fortune which persecuted the Confederate 
arms in Virginia, was dealing them, at the same time, a 
crushing blow on the Mississippi River. The Southerners 
had fortified Vicksburg, Miss., and Port Hudson, Louisiana, 
thus shutting the navigation of the Mississippi and guard- 
ing the mouth of Red River, a valuable channel of commu- 

9. What great battle was fought in May, 1863? With what success ? 
What great General did the Confederates lose? — 10. What was the con- 
dition of the Confederates after the battle of Chancellorsville ? What 
did they resolve? What great battle was fought in Pennsylvania? 
With what result? — 11. How about the state of affairs, at that time, on 
the Mississippi River ? 



504 UNITED STATES. 

nication with the trans-Mississippi department, whence they 
derived their best sources of supplies. An expedition was 
gotten up in New Orleans, against Port Hudson, by the 
combined army and fleet of General Banks and Commodore 
Farragut, whilst General Grant moved on Vicksburg. On 
the 14th of March, General Banks' advance engaged the Con- 
federate pickets near Port Hudson ; and on the same night, at 
eleven o'clock, Commodore Farragut's fleet attacked the river 
defences. The Commodore's flag-ship, Hartford, with an- 
other vessel, the Albatross, lashed to it, succeeded in passing 
the batteries under cover of the darkness, but the other ves- 
sels, severely crippled, had to renounce the attempt, and to 
float down the stream. The steam frigate Mississippi, run- 
ning aground opposite the batteries, was set on fire and 
burned to the water's edge. General Banks did not attack, 
but moved rapidly back to Baton Rouge, whence he crossed, 
some time later, into Western Louisiana, overran that coun- 
try, and recrossed the Mississippi above Port Hudson. Dur- 
ing the intervening period, the greater part of the garrison 
was ordered off to strengthen General Pemberton's army, 
which' defended the approaches to Yicksburg, and when the 
events about to be recorded took place, in May, the garrison of 
Port Hudson was reduced to about five thousand men, under 
General Gardner. On the 8th of that month, the fleet came 
in view, and took a position some four miles below the town. 
Six mortar-boats and five vessels of war commenced the bom- 
bardment, which was to last until the end of the siege. On the 
21st, General Banks completed the investment of Port Hudson. 
12. Despatches now reached the Confederate Commander, 
ordering the evacuation of Port Hudson. But it was too 
late. A council of war, summoned by the commander, took 
the following points in consideration : That General Grant, 
with superior forces, was pressing Pemberton in Yicks- 
burg ; that the junction of Banks' thirty thousand men 
with Grant's one hundred thousand would make the 
fall of Yicksburg certain ; that the little garrison of Port 
Hudson, although hopeless of final success, could serve more 
effectually the Confederacy by detaining General Banks 
than by cutting their way through his forces. The ofiBcers 
resolved to accomplish the sacrifice, and the garrison, in 



Describe the naval attack. Where did General Banks operate after- 
wards? How was Port Hudson invested ?— 12. Why did the garrison 
resolve to defend the place? What were, meanwhile, General Pem- 
berton's movements ? 



UNITED STATES. 505 

pursuance of that resolution, held the place forty-eight 
days. Meanwhile, defeated at Black River, General Pem- 
berton had retired into Yicksburg with thirty thousand men. 
But, despairing of receiving aid from General Johnston, the 
department commander, he surrendered Yicksburg on the 
4th of July, 1 863. The astounding news reached Port Hud- 
son on the 8th, and it having been officially communicated 
to General Gardner by General Banks, the former considered 
the further effusion of blood as unnecessary, and surrendered, 
with all the honors of war, on the 9th of July. There re- 
mained of the garrison but two thousand men fit for duty ; 
their ammunition was exhausted, three-fourths of their guns 
dismounted, and they had been living for the past three 
weeks on half a pound of mule meat and three ears of 
corn daily to each man. On the very night of the 8th, after 
the terms of capitulation had been agreed upon. General 
Banks sent in four thousand rations to the famished garrison. 
13. The resources of the South, both as to men and sup- 
plies, were now nearly exhausted. New levies were made, and 
the boys left their school-books to take their place by the side 
of gray-headed old men ; but it was only to protract the strug- 
gle in a doomed cause. The North, with her large popula- 
tion and the ceaseless flow of immigration from Europe, kept 
swelling the rajiks of her armies, whilst, with her rich gran- 
aries, her arsenals, and manufactures, and the ports of the 
whole world open to her, she had inexhaustible sources of 
supplies. In 1864, she had six hundred thousand men in the 
field. General Sherman's army of Tennessee took up its 
march from Chattanooga on Atlanta, Georgia, the great cen- 
tre of railroad communication in the South. General Sigel 
occupied the Shenandoah valley, while two armies marched 
on Richmond and Petersburg, the key to its approach. Al- 
though General Johnston disputed the ground inch by inch, 
he could not stay General Sherman's triumphant march 
through the very heart of the Confederacy. His successor. 
General Hood, tried to divert the attention of Sherman, by 
moving into Tennessee ; but the wily Federal commander 
did not change his plans. Hood nearly lost his little army 
in an attack on Franklin. Meanwhile, Sherman did not win- 
ter at Atlanta, as was supposed to be his intention, but took 

What was the fate of Vicksburg ? Of Port Hudson ?— 13. What was 
the respective condition of the two contending parties at the close of 
1863? With what forces did the North open the campaign of 1864, 
and what disposition was made of them? Describe Sherman's cam- 
paign and its results. 
43 



506 UNITED STATES. 

up his march in the direction of the Atlantic coast, destroying 
the railroads, and burning the mills and the crops. He took 
Savannah, caused the evacuation of Charleston, the proud 
city which had held for more than a year against fleet and 
army, overran the two Carolinas, leaving ruins and devasta- 
tion behind him, and thus cut off the last resources of sup- 
plies for Lee's army. 

14. Grant, now Lieutenant-General, in supreme command 
of the armies of the United States, had steadily pursued his 
plan of operations against Richmond. Battles had followed 
battles, with alternate success ; but whilst the Confederate 
forces were being slowly reduced, the Federal army kept in- 
creasing, by continual reinforcements. The bloody battle of 
Five Forks, fought on the 1st of April, decided the result. 
Lee ordered the evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg, and 
commenced retreating, pursued by Grant. On the 9th of 
April, 1865, the shattered remnants of the Army of Virginia 
surrendered. This was the virtual ending of the war. The 
last hopes of the Confederacy had long been centred in that 
army, and wherever the news of its surrender reached the 
Confederate commanders, they ceased all resistance and laid 
down their arms. Officers and men were paroled and dis- 
banded, in accordance with the terms of General Lee's sur- 
render. 

15. Only five days after the surrender of General Lee, a 
thrill of horror was sent throughout the land by the report 
of the assassination of President Lincoln, who was shot in 
Ford's Theatre, Washington. Mr. Lincoln had recently been 
reelected for another term. Yice-President Andrew Johnson 
was now inaugurated President. Jefferson Davis, the Pres- 
ident of the Southern Confederacy, was made prisoner, soon 
after the surrender, and taken to Fortress Monroe, where he 
was held in captivity until the spring of 1867, when he was 
released on bail without a trial, and all proceedings against 
him were finally abandoned. 

16. Once more the sun of peace shone on a hundred blood- 
stained battle-fields and a reunited country. The great Re- 
bellion was quelled. The authority of the Federal govern- 
ment was undisputed from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from 
the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Over two millions 

14. What was General Grant doing, meanwhile? What battle has- 
tened the end of the war? What happened on the 9th of April, ISfio? 
What were the immediate consequences of the surrender? — 15. What 
sent a thrill of horror throughout the land? Who was now inaugu- 
1 aied President ? What is said of Jefferson Davis ? 



UNITED STATES. 507 

of men had been engaged in the gigantic conflict, and more 
than half a million were killed or died of disease. At the end 
of the war the debt of the United States was $2,^50,000,000. 
The Southern States were almost ruined and desolated. It 
took many a year to stop the bleeding wounds, and even yet 
the scars remain. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE NEW NATIONAL LIFE. 



"VTO sooner was the tragedy of war over, than the slow and 
l\ difficult work of reconstruction commenced. Slavery was 
abolished. A clause was added to the Constitution, which 
made the evil system extinct forever. This, at least, was 
one result which Providence had mercifully brought out of a 
rebellion whose avowed object was to establish slavery more 
firmly, and more widely to extend its boundaries. 

2. As the eleven Southern States were left without legal 
State governments, their affairs were necessarily adminis- 
tered by the Federal authorities. Military Governors were 
appointed, new constitutions adopted, and finally, as time 
went on, the reconstructed States took their old places in the 
Union, and their Senators and Representatives were admit- 
ted to the national Capitol at Washington. 

3. In 1867 the United States purchased from Russia her 
North American territory, for the sum of seven million two 
hundred thousand dollars. It is known as Alaska. In the 
same year Nebraska, the thirty-seventh State, was admitted 
to the Union. General Grant, as the candidate of the Repub- 
licans, was elected President in 1868. The Democratic can- 
didate was Horatio Seymour, of New York. It was during 
President Grant's term of office that the ''Alabama claims " 
came up for settlement. Confederate cruisers, which had 



16. How many men were engaged in the Rebellion? How many 
were killed ? What was the debt of the United States at the end oif 
the war ? What is remarked of the Southern States ? 

Chapter IX. — 1. After the tragedy of war was over, what com- 
menced? What was abolished? What is said of this result ? — 2. How 
were the affairs of the Southern States managed ? What finally took 
place?— 3. What did the United States purchase in 1867? What State 
was admitted? Who was elected to the Presidency? What claims 
were settled during Grant's administration ? 



508 UNITED STATES. 

been fitted out at British ports, had committed vast depreda- 
tions on American commerce. The United States demanded 
compensation from England. After much delay and negoti- 
ation, the matter was finally left to a tribunal of arbitration, 
which, in 1872, placed the damages at fifteen million five 
hundred thousand dollars. This sum was paid by the British 
government. 

4. General Grant was reelected by the Republicans in 18*72. 
Bad treatment of the Indians originated numerous troubles 
and massacres. The Modocs of Oregon murdered General 
Can by in 1873, and in 1876 General Custer and his whole 
command fell victims to Sitting Bull and the red warriors 
of Montana. The government of this Republic has never 
treated the Indians justly, and nearly everything has been 
taken away from the poor savages except the memory of 
countless wrongs. 

5. In the spring of 1875, Pope Pius IX. conferred a mem- 
orable honor on the Catholic Church of the United States. 
He raised Archbishop McCloskey, of New York, to the dig- 
nity of Cardinal. 

6. The United States celebrated the one hundredth anni- 
versary of the Declaration of Independence in 1876. The 
anniversaries of the various battles, as they came around, 
were also duly commemorated. The Centennial year, how- 
ever, was especially marked by the holding of a great Inter- 
national Exhibition at Philadelphia. Nearly all the great 
nations of the world represented their productions. The 
Exhibition opened in May and closed in November. It was 
visited by about ten millions of people, and it is worthy of 
note that the only royal visitor was Dom Pedro, the learned 
and enlightened Catholic Emperor of Brazil. Colorado, the 
thirty-eighth State, was admitted to the Union during the 
Centennial year. 

7. At the election of 1876, the Republican candidate for 
the Presidency was Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio ; and the 
Democratic candidate for the same office was Samuel J. Til- 
dcn, of New York. A very close contest was followed by 
disputes as to how the electoral votes of certain States 
should be cast. An Electoral Commission, appointed by 

What sum was paid by the British government? — 4. Who was re- 
elected in 1872? What is said of the Indian troubles? — 5. What hap- 
pened in the spring of 1875? — 6. What did the United States celebrate 
in 1876? What was held at Philadelphia? What is said of the vis- 
itors? What State was admitted this year? — 7. What is remarked of 
the elections of 1876 ? 



UNITED STATES. 509 

Congress, pronounced in favor of the Republican candidate ; 
and in 1877, Hayes took the oath of office as President of 
the United States. His administration was uneventful. The 
Presidential candidates in 1880 were General Winfield S. 
Hancock, of Pennsylvania, nominee of the Democratic party, 
and General James A. Garfield of Ohio, nominee of the Re- 
publican party. General Garfield was elected, and filled the 
presidential chair but a few months, when he fell mortally 
wounded by the bullet of a wretched assassin. He died 
after suffering with heroic fortitude for eleven weeks. Vice- 
President Arthur succeeded in accordance with the provisions 
of the Constitution. 

What commission was appointed, and what was the result? What 
is said of the election of 1880? Of General Garfield ? Who succeeded 
Garfield? 
43* 



BOOK XYIII. 
THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 



CHAPTER I. 

FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE TRIUMPH OF 
CHRISTIANITY.— A. B. 1 TO 312. 

"VrO work on general history can be complete without a 
XM sketch of the Catholic Religion from its establishment 
to the present time. This embraces a period of nearly nine- 
teen centuries, which may be divided into three portions. 

The first division extends from the birth of Christ to the 
triumph of Christianity, when it became the religion of the 
Roman Empire, under the reign of Constantine the Great, 
A. D. 312. 

The second division extends from the reign of Constantine 
to the so-called Reformation, a. d. 1517; and the third, from 
the Reformation till our own day. 

2. At a time when the Roman Empire had reached the 
meridian of its greatness, when every nation accessible to its 
arms had yielded submission to its power, when rival mon- 
archs and contending chieftains had ceased their strife, and 
the troubled elements of war, which had for ages convulsed 
the world, had sunk to repose under the mild reign of Au- 
gustus, our Lord Jesus Christ, the Prince of Peace and the 
Redeemer of the world, was born at Bethlehem, in Judea. 

At the time when this remarkable event took place, an 
expectation universally prevailed, even among the pagan 
nations, that some extraordinary personage was about to 
appear on this earth. The Jews, in particular, were anx- 
iously expecting the coming of the Messiah, whose birth had 

Chapter I. — 1. What period does the history of the Catholic Ciiurch 
embrace? How does the first division extend? The second? The 
third ? — 2. When and where was Jesus Christ born ? At that time, 
what prevailed ? What were the Jews anxiously expecting ? 

5 JO 



THE CHURCH. 511 

been long* foretold by the prophets ; but they very errone- 
ously imagined that He would appear as a great prince, 
clothed with worldly splendor and power ; as a mighty con- 
queror, who would deliver their nation from the dominion 
of the Romans. 

3. The Pharisees, who were the most powerful of the 
three sects* into which the Jews were at that time divided, 
l^resided in the schools, and were the chief doctors of the 
law. They received all the books of the Old Testament, to 
which they added their traditions or oral law, which was 
regarded of high authority. They affected the appearance 
of great sanctity, but being destitute of the true spirit of 
religion, they are chargeable with the grossest hypocrisy ; 
they looked for a Messiah only as a great deliverer, who 
should rescue Judea from the yoke of a foreign power, and 
subject the whole world to the Mosaic institutions. It is 
not surprising, then, that the manner of our Divine Savior's 
appearance on earth disappointed the expectation of the 
Jews. No royal palace marks the consecrated spot where 
the long-expected Messiah first appeared among the children 
of men. A lowly manger was the place of His nativity, 
Joseph, His reputed father, was an humbJe carpenter, and 
the Blessed Mary, His virginal mother, though descended 
from the royal house of David, was undistinguished among 
the daughters of Judea. 

4. The life of our Divine Redeemer was one of labor and 
suffering, and His death was finally consummated upon an 
ignominious cross. He had chosen for His disciples men in 
the humblest walks of life. Peter, the chief of the Apostles, 
was a fisherman. To the Twelve He gave a divine com- 
mission to propagate His heavenly doctrine, in these remark- 
able words : " To Me all power is given in heaven and on 
earth ; go ye, therefore, and teach all nations ; baptizing 

* The other two sects were the Sadducees and Essences. The Saddu- 
cees were unbelievers in religion ; they admitted the authority of the 
books of Moses, but denied the sacred character of the other parts of the 
Old Testament ; they rejected the doctrine of a future life, and the ex- 
istence of angels and spirits. The Essences were a class of men who 
took no concern in the affairs of state, but professed to live in retirement 
and to attempt to purify the soul by abstinence, silence, and mortifica- 
tion. 

But what did they imagine? — 3. What is said of the Pharisees? 
What did they affect? What is not surprising? What was the place 
of His nativity? What was Joseph ? What Avas Mary ?— 4. Wliat is 
said of our Divine Savior? What had He chosen? In what words did 
He commission the twelve Apostles? 



512 THE CHURCH. 

them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the 
Holy Ghost ; teaching them to observe all things whatsoever 
I have commanded you ; and behold I am with you all days, 
even to the consummation of the world."* 

5. Thus divinely commissioned, the Apostles on the day 
of Pentecost, being enriched with the gifts of the Holy Ghost, 
entered upon their mission, and in the streets of Jerusalem 
promulgated the law of Jesus Christ, and so astonishing 
were the fruits of their labors, that no less than three 
thousand persons were converted by the first sermon of St. 
Feter. This success did not fail to awaken in the breast of 
the Jewish rulers a spirit of jealousy ; and they dreaded the 
total subversion of the Mosaic law, and left nothing undone 
to retard the labors of the Apostles. A violent persecution 
followed, during which St. Stephen, one of the Seven Dea- 
cons, fell a sacrifice to their fury and fanaticism, and is hon- 
ored as the first martyr of the Christian religion. The most 
active persecutor of the followers of Christ, however, was a 
young man named Said, who, not satisfied with the cruelties 
he had committed at Jerusalem, obtained permission of the 
High-Priest to pursue them even to the adjacent towns and 
cities. With this view, he set out to Damascus, but on his 
road he was suddenly struck blind, and cast upon the ground ; 
at the same time he heard a voice saying to him, " Saul, Saul! 
why dost thou persecute me ? " His attendants raised him 
up, and conducted him to the town ; he was there baptized 
by a holy priest named Ananias, and Saul, from being a 
violent persecutor of the Christian church, became one of its 
most illustrious apostles, and assumed the name of Paul. 

6. In the meantime, the twelve Apostles having composed 
a symbol of their belief, commonly called the Apostles' Creed, f 
and having appointed St. James, the son of Alpheus, as the 
first Bishop of Jerusalem, set out to announce the truths of 
Christianity to the pagan world. They confirmed the doc- 
trines they taught by the most astonishing miracles ; they 
healed the sick ; raised the dead to life ; and being endowed 

* St. Matt., chap. 28. 

t It is in the Apostles' Creed that we find the first mention of the name 
of the Church founded by Christ — "the Holy Catholic Church." 

5. What did the Apostles do ? How many were converted by the first 
sermon of St. Peter ? What followed ? Who fell a sacrifice to their 
fury ? Who was the most active of the persecutors ? On the road to 
Damascus, what happened to him ? By whom was he baptized ? What 
Dame did he assume? — 6. In the meantime, what did the twelve Apos- 
tles do? How did they confirm the doctrine they taught ? 



THE CHURCH. 513 

with the gift of tongues, they were enabled to speak the lan- 
guage of the different nations through which they travelled. 
The rapidity with which the Christian faith was propagated, 
will appear the more extraordinary, when we reflect that its 
Founder belonged to a nation undistinguished for power or 
importance ; that He suffered a public and ignominious death; 
that His apostles, with few exceptions, were poor and illit- 
erate, destitute of power or influence ; that the religion which 
they preached held out no promise of temporal goods, no 
worldly pleasures, honors, or riches ; but, on the contrary, 
often exposed its professors to scorn and reproach, persecu- 
tion and temporal loss ; finally, that it had to contend not 
only with the long-estalblished superstition and popular dog- 
mas of pagan worship, but also with the vices, passions, 
prejudices, and power of the whole world 1 

7. Under such circumstances, the marvellous success of the 
Apostles in spreading the Christian religion can be no other 
than the work of an Almighty Hand. To the divine power 
of its Founder alone, must we ascribe the wonderful triumph 
of the Gospel. Allured by no earthly advantage, subdued 
by no other force than that of truth, the learned and the 
ignorant, the Jew and the Gentile, the Greek and the Bar- 
barian, meekly bowed their necks to the yoke of Christ, shook 
off their ancient prejudices, and professed themselves the 
followers of a crucified God. 

8. In a few years, we find that the light of Christianity 
has spread its cheering rays over the various provinces of the 
Roman Empire. St. Peter visited the towns of Samaria, 
Judea, and Syria, and first fixed his episcopal chair at An- 
tioch. He afterwards traversed the provinces of Asia Minor, 
and preached to the Jews in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, 
and Bithynia ; he visited Kome about the year 44, to which 
city he removed his Pontifical See, wisely judging that from 
the capital the light of Christianity would spread more rap- 
idly through the whole empire. St. Paul, who had lately 
been introduced to the Apostles, was consecrated Bishop and 
sent to carry the glad tidings of the Gospel to the Gentile 
nations. Passing through Antioch * and the provinces of 

* It was at Antioch, according to St. Luke, that " the disciples were 
frst named Christians." This was about the year 44. 

What is said of the rapidity with which Christianity was propagated ? 
— 7. What is said of this rapid success? What is further observed in 
this paragraph? — 8. In a few years, what do we find? What places 
did St. Peter visit ? When did he visit Kome ? What is said of St. 
Paul ? What places did he pass through ? 

2H 



514 THE CHURCH. 

Asia Minor, he converted thousands to the Christian relig- 
ion ; thence he visited Greece, a country which had been 
long renowned for science, for eloquence, and for arts. Here 
the Apostle resolved to introduce a more sublime and precious 
knowledge, the knowledge of the true God. His labors were 
crowned with success. Idolatry fell before the power of his 
heavenly eloquence ; and flourishing churches arose in the 
cities of Corinth, Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, and Ephesus. 
From Greece he directed his course to Rome, and carried the 
knowledge of Christ into the very apartments of Nero's 
palace. 

9. Notwithstanding the many shining virtues which adorned 
the lives of the first professors of Christianity, they were 
not, however, exempt from the frailties of men. A mis- 
guided zeal on the part of many of the Jewish converts at 
Antioch led them to propose, as matter of obligation, that 
the Gentiles who became Christians should submit to the 
law of circumcision if they hoped to attain salvation. The 
proposition gave rise to warm disputes ; charity and religion 
were likely to suffer, when the affair was happily settled by 
a council held at Jerusalem. St. Paul and Barnabas repaired 
to that city to be present on the occasion. St. Peter presid- 
ing, opened the discussion, and after relating the wonders 
which God had wrought through his ministry among the 
Gentiles, concluded that no superfluous burden of the ancient 
law ought to be imposed upon them. St. James concluded 
the debate by expressing his approbation of the decision 
given by St. Pete7\ 

10. In this, the first Council of the Catholic Church, the 
Apostles established a judicial form of proceeding, which the 
Church in after ages followed, in deciding all questions that 
relate to faith and discipline. A dispute, important in its 
consequences, had arisen among the faithful ; private author- 
ity, even that of St. Paul, is unable to calm into silence the 
contending parties; recourse is had to the pastors of the 
Church assembled in council, the points in dfspute are regu- 
larly discussed ; a decree is formed upon the subject ; the 
faithful bow in acquiescence to the decision ; the cause of 
disagreement is removed ; and harmony and peace are again 
restored. 

Where did he finally direct his course ? — 9. What did a misguided 
zeal lead many of the Jewish converts to propose ? How was the affair 
settled ? Who opened the discussion, and who concluded the debate ? 
— 10. In this council, what was established ? What is observed about 
it? 



THE CHURCH. 515 

11. After the death of Festiis, the Roman Grovernor, bv 
whose authority the violence of the Jews had been restrained, 
the flame of persecution was again renewed against the 
Christians in Jerusalem. St. James, the Bishop of Jerusa- 
lem, surnamed the Just, on account of his exemplary piety 
and charity, fell a victim to their blind fanaticism. Being 
summoned before the council of the San'hedrim,'^ he was 
ordered to declare his opinion concerning Jesus Christ. But 
in order that the declaration might be more public, they com- 
manded the venerable Apostle to ascend the battlements of 
the Temple, and thence declare his sentiments to the sur- 
rounding multitude. No sooner had the holy confessor ap- 
peared on the summit, and proclaimed the divinity of Jesus 
Christ, than he was precipitated from, the battlements, and 
died amidst a furious discharge of stones from the hands of 
the populace, while, in imitation of his divine Master, he 
prayed for his persecutors, and besought God to forgive 
them, because they knew not what they did. 

12. Although the faithful had suffered in many places, 
both from the Jews and Gentiles, they had not, as yet, un- 
dergone any general persecution. The first of the Roman 
Emperors who armed the sovereignty of the state against 
the professors of Christianity, was the brutal Nero, whose 
cruelty was only surpassed by his moral depravity. In his 
wild extravagance, this imperial madman set fire to the city 
of Rome, that he might have the vain satisfaction of rebuild- 
ing it on a more magnificent plan. But finding that his ex- 
cesses created against him the murmurs and disaffection of 
the people, he artfully contrived to throw the odium upon 
the Christians, whom he openly accused as the authors of 
the late conflagration, and published a decree, which made 
it a capital offence to profess the Christian religion. Revolt- 
ing were the cruelties exercised against the unoffending mem- 
bers of the Catholic Church. Some were covered with the 
skins of wild beasts and devoured by dogs; others were 
braced in tunics steeped in pitch, and placed at certain 
distances, then set on fire to light the streets by night. 

* The great Council of the Jews, which consisted of seventy members, 
presided over by the High-Priest. 

11. After the death of Festus, what J'ollowed ? Who fell a victim 
to their fury? Relate the circumstances of his death. — 12. Who first 
armed the sovereign power against the Christians ? What did he do ? 
On whom did he throw the odium ? What did he publish ? How were 
some put to death ? 



516 THE CHURCH. 

Among the many who suffered on this occasion, were the 
two illustrious Apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul. They were 
confined for nine months in a loathsome prison, at the foot 
of the capitol, before they were called to receive the crown 
of martyrdom. St. Peter was crucified with his head down- 
wards, but St. Paul, being a Roman citizen, had the honor 
of dying by the sword. 

13. The second persecution commenced during the reign 
of the Emperor Domitian, about the year 95, during which 
it is computed that forty thousand Christians received the 
crown of martyrdom. The most illustrious sufferer was St. 
John, the Evangelist. He resided chiefly at Ephesus, Asia 
Minor ; but on information being lodged against him, he was 
cited by the Emperor to appear at Rome, and on account of 
his faith, he was condemned to be cast alive into a caldron 
of boiling oil. The sentence was carried into execution 
before the Latin Gate, but by the miraculous power of God, 
the holy martyr came forth from the caldron not only unhurt, 
but more fresh and vigorous than before. The brutal Em- 
peror having failed in his attempt to deprive him of life, 
banished him to the Isle of Patnios, where the inspired Saint 
was favored with those heavenly visions recorded in the 
Apocalypse, or Book of Revelations. On the death of Do- 
mitian, in the year 96, St. John again returned to Ephesus. 
At this early period the Catholic Church had the mortifica- 
tion to see many of her children fall from their first faith, 
and teach erroneous doctrines. Of these, the most conspic- 
uous were Ebion and Nicholas of Antioch. Among other 
errors, they denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, and asserted 
the necessity of observing the ceremonies of the Mosaic law. 
To silence the heretical declaimers, St. John, at the request 
of the Bishops of Asia, wrote his Gospel, which he com- 
mences in a strain of sublime eloquence. 

14. After the death of Domitian, the peace of the Church 
was restored, under the mild reign of Nerva ; but the reign 
of that prince was of short duration, and on the accession 
of Trajan to the imperial throne, the sanguinary edicts of 
Nero and Domitian were again renewed, and again the cities 

Who were the most distinguished ? — 13. When did the second per- 
secution commence? Who was the most illustrious sufferer? Where 
did he reside, and to what was he condemned ? How did he come forth 
from the caldron ? Where was he banished ? At this early period, 
what had the church ? Of these, who were the most conspicuous ? To 
silence them, what did St. John do ? — 14. When did the third persecu- 
tion commence? 



THE CHURCH. 517 

and provinces flowed with Christian blood. This was the 
third general persecution. The younger Pliny, who was 
then Governor of Bithynia, in a letter to the Emperor, bears 
ample testimony to the exemplary lives of the Christians, 
and tells us, that so great was their number, that they filled 
the fields, the towns, and villages ; that on his arrival in the 
province, he could scarcely find a man of whom to purchase 
victims for the pagan altars. The most illustrious of those 
who suffered for the faith, on this occasion, were St. Clem- 
ent, the Bishop of Rome ; St. Ignatius, of Antioch, and St. 
Simeon, of Jerusalem. Simeon was nearly related to our 
Divine Savior, and had reached the one hundred and twen- 
tieth year of his age. 

15. The fourth persecution commenced about the year 
168, under the reign of 3Iarcus Aurelius, during which 
thousands sealed with their blood the doctrines of the Cath- 
olic Church. Among the most illustrious of those who suf- 
fered was St. Polycarp, the venerable Bishop of Smyrna. 

The fifth persecution commenced in the year 202. From 
the death of Aurelius, the Christians had enjoyed the free ex- 
ercise of their religion, under various Emperors, to the reign 
of Severns, who was thought even favorable to Christianity, 
during the first seven years of his administration. At this 
period, however, seemingly without any provocation, he pub- 
lished against them a most sanguinary edict, forbidding them 
to hold their religious assemblies, and to profess the name 
of Christ. A dreadful persecution followed, particularly in 
Egypt, in Gaul, and Africa, where thousands sealed the pro- 
fession of their faith by shedding the last drop of their blood. 

16. The sixth persecution was commenced under the reign 
of Maximin, who had reached the imperial throne by im- 
bruing his hand in the blood of his predecessor. This bar- 
barous Emperor pointed not his shafts against the great 
body of the Christians, who had now become too numerous 
to be marked out for slaughter, but directed his malice against 
the pastors of the Church. With the death of Maximin, the 
persecution ceased in 240, after it had lasted three years. 
The seventh persecution of the Christians was published on 
the accession of Decius to the throne. It was the most 

What does the younger Pliny say of the Christians? Who were tlie 
most illustrious of the sufferers ? — 15. When was the fourth persecution 
commenced, and who suffered? When did the fifth persecution com- 
mence? What edict was published ?— 16. When was the sixth perse- 
cution commenced? Against whom did he direct his malice? When 
was the seventh persecution published? 
44 



518 THE CHURCH. 

dreadful hitherto experienced; prisons, stripes, fire, wild 
beasts, melted wax, boiling pitch, racks, and iron hooks to 
tear the flesh from the bones, were employed to torment and 
to kill. The most distinguished of those who suffered' dur- 
ing this persecution were, Fabianus, the Bishop of Rome, 
Alexander, of Jerusalem, and Balytas, of Antioch. The 
eighth persecution was commenced under the Emperor Va- 
lerian, who, in the beginning of his reign, had shown the 
greatest lenity towards the Christians. With a view of ren- 
dering the pagan gods propitious to his arms, on the eve of 
an expedition against the Persians, he published a violent 
edict against the professors of the Christian name. Among 
the first who suffered were, Pope St. Stephen, and St. Sextus, 
his immediate successor, with the illustrious martyr, St. 
Lawrence, and also St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage. 

17. To gratify the Senate and people of Rome, the Em- 
peror Aurelian published a sanguinary edict against the 
Christians about the year 274 ; but the hand of an assassin 
put an end to his life before he had the satisfaction of seeing 
it properly carried into efi'ect. Yet in several places many 
received the crown of martyrdom. 

The tenth and last general persecution took place about 
the year 302. The Church, after enjoying a general tran- 
quillity for thirty years, was again doomed to experience 
another sanguinary persecution, under Diocletian and his 
colleagues in the empire. For some time Diocletian rejected 
the measures on political motives, until he was at length 
overcome by the soothsayers, who declared that the empire 
could never flourish as long as the impious, meaning the 
Catholics, were suffered to exist. The deluded Emperor 
weakly yielded to their persuasions, and published an edict 
for the total destruction of the Catholic religion. This vio- 
lent decree well suited the sanguinary dispositions of his 
colleagues, Maximinus and Galerius, whose respective prov- 
inces were deluged in Christian blood. In Britain and Gaul, 
under the mild administration of Constantius, the horrors of 
the persecution were less severe ; still the authority of Con- 
stantius was insufficient in some instances to restrain the 
more superstitious of the magistrates ; hence, even in Britain, 

What were the modes of torture ? Who were the most distinguished 
sufferers? What did Valerian publish on the eve of his expedition 
against Persia? Who suffered on this occasion?— 17. To gratify the 
people of Rome, what did Aurelian do ? When did the tenth persecu- 
tion take place? For some time what did he reject? At length, what 
did he publish? What is said of the persec^ntion in Briiain? 



THE CHURCH. 519 

we find St. Albaii and also St. Angelas, Bishop of London, 
dying for the faith ; and in Gaul, St. Quintin and others, 
with the whole Theban legion, was barbarously sacrificed to 
gratify an inferior officer of state. 

18. At this period, however, when the power of darkness 
seemed to threaten the total extirpation of the Christian 
name, we are called to look for the rise of that coming dawn 
which is to usher in a brighter and happier era, when the 
Catholic Church is to triumph over the ruins of pagan super- 
stition, and when the cross is to adorn the diadem of the 
Gsesars. By a sudden revolution in the state, or rather by 
the providence of God, whose superintending power directs 
the destinies of nations, Constantine having triumphed over 
all his competitors, was placed in the undisputed possession 
of the imperial throne. The first care of this enlightened 
prince was to declare himself the protector of the Christian 
faith, and to publish an edict, by which all the penal re- 
straints respecting religion were removed, and full liberty 
allowed to every one to profess and exercise that form of 
religious worship he should think proper to adopt. To break 
the force of prejudice, which time and custom had thrown 
around the pagan religion of the empire, Constantine wisely 
judged that lenient measures were the most likely to effect 
his object ; and he concluded that to overthrow the S3"stem 
of error, nothing more was requisite than to grant protection 
to the true religion, and to let the wisdom of its doctrines 
and the purity of its precepts appear in open view. 

19. To remedy the evils occasioned by the edicts of his 
predecessors, he recalled the exiles, restored to the Christians 
their places of worship, and treated their pastors with the 
deepest respect. To the Pope or Bishop of Rome he granted 
the Lateran Palace as the place of his future residence, and 
the adjoining palace was converted into a Christian temple, 
now called the church of St. John of Lateran. 

Thus was the Catholic Church, which had been founded by 
Jesus Christ, finally triumphant, after undergoing the ordeal 
of ten sanguinary persecutions. A change with respect to 
their religion, so sudden, and so unexpected, inspired the 
faithful with the prospect of joy for the present, and the 
most flattering anticipations for the future. 

18. At this period what are we called to look for? What is said of 
Constantine? What was his first care, and what did he publish? To 
break the force of prejudice, what did he conclude ? — 19. To remedy 
the evils, etc., what did he do ? To the Bishop of Kome what did he 
grant ? What is observed of the Church ? 



520 THE CHURCH, 



CHAPTER II. 

FROM THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY TO THE SO-CALLED 
REFORMATION.— A. D. 312 TO 1517. 

UNDER the protection of Constantine the Christian 
religion began to assume an imposing aspect ; magnifi- 
cent churches arose where pagan temples had stood for ages ; 
the storm of persecution had ceased ; the Bishops no longer 
lay under any restraint in the public exercise of their pas- 
toral functions ; the people hastened to embrace a religion 
sanctioned by their Emperor. Such was the pleasing pros- 
pect of affairs when the Catholic Church beheld her peace 
interrupted, and prosperity marred, not indeed by the hand 
of a pagan persecutor, but from the unworthy conduct of 
her own children. 

2. Aj'ius, a turbulent priest of Alexandria, had aspired to 
the episcopal chair of that city, but being defeated in his 
pretensions, he began to assail the doctrines of the Church, 
and openly denied the divinity of Christ, and asserted that the 
Son of God was not equal to His Father in nature and sub- 
stance. At this doctrine, the faithful were shocked and 
scandalized ; the pastors were alarmed ; and in order to check 
the progress of error, and to define the doctrine of the Church 
on the point in question, the calling together of a general 
council was deemed expedient. Accordingly, during the 
month of June, in the year 325, the famous council of Nice 
was convened. It was composed of three hundred and 
eighteen Bishops, besides a much greater number of inferior 
ecclesiastics. Osius, the venerable bishop of Cordova, in 
Spain, with two priests, presided in the name of Pope St. 
Sylvester, who was unable to attend in person. Constantine 
also, with many of his chief officers of state, was present on 
the occasion. After mature deliberation the Fathers of the 
Council, with exception of five Bishops, unanimously con- 
demned the opinions of Arius as erroneous, and contrary to 
what had been taught by the Apostles and their immediate 

Chapter II —1. What is said of Christianity under the protection of 
Constantine? What arose ? What did the people do?— 2. What is said 
of Arius ? What did he deny and assert ? In order to check the progress 
of error, what was done ? When and where did it meet ? Of what was 
it composed ? Who presided ? How were the opinions of Arius con- 
demned ? 



THE CHURCH. 521 

successors, and published the Nicene Creed, "^ which should 
stand to all succeeding ages as the test of orthodox belief in 
the divinity of Jesus Christ. The question of faith being 
thus finally decided, the Council proceeded to enact certain 
canons for the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. The 
uniform celebration of Easter Sunday was fixed, and directed 
to be universally kept in future, on the first Sunday after the 
first full moon that follows the venial equinox. Before the 
Council separated, a synodical epistle was drawn up and di- 
rected to St. Sylvester, who is styled in that document "the 
blessed Pope of Rome," requesting that he would confirm 
its decrees. 

3. Arianism was checked for the present, but not sup- 
pressed. It continued to find many patrons and supporters 
among those whose rank and power gave it considerable in- 
fluence. Gonstantius, the son and successor of Constantine, 
with several subsequent Emperors, favored the Arian heresy, 
and under their respective reigns the orthodox portion of 
the Church experienced a series of persecutions little inferior, 
in point of cruelty and violence, to those carried on when 
pagan sovereigns swayed the imperial sceptre. Under the 
reign of Theodosius the Great, peace was again restored to 
the Church ; and in order to remedy the evils, and correct 
the general confusion of doctrine that pervaded the east, 
occasioned by the violence which prevailed for nearly forty 
years, a second General Council was convened at Constanti- 
nople, in the month of May, A. d. 381. 

4. This Council consisted of about one hundred and fifty 
Catholic Bishops, besides thirty of the Macedonian party. 
The Macedonians, who took their name from Macedonius, 
the leader of their sect, not only maintained the Arian heresy, 
but also denied the divine procession of the Holy Ghost. 
The Fathers of the Council condemned, in the most explicit 
terms, this new error, declaring the Holy Ghost to be "The 
Lord and Giver of life, who, with the Father and Son, is 
equally adored and glorified." Among the persons most 

* This Creed can be found among the prayers at Mass in any Catholic 
prayer-book ; and in it the four- marks of the true Church — " One, Holy, 
Catholic, and Apostolic" — were first stated. 

What was fixed and directed ? Before the council separated, what 
was done? — 3. What is said of Arianism? Of Gonstantius? Under 
Theodosius the Great, what took place? When was the second council 
convened ? — 4. Of what did this council consist ? What did the Mace- 
donians maintain and deny? What did the fathers of this council 
declare ? 

44* 



522 THE CHURCH. 

distinguished for their learning and sanctity, we find the 
names of St. Athana' sius, Bishop of Alexandria ; St. Basil 
the Gr^eat, Archbishop of Csgsarea ; St. Gregory Nazian' zen, 
no less distinguished for his eloquence than for the holiness 
of his life; St. Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa, and St. Cyril, 
Bishop of Jerusalem. To these may be added the names of 
St. Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan ; St. Jerome, the learned 
Secretary of Pope St. Damascus, and finally the illustrious 
St. John Chry'sostom, who died in the early part of the suc- 
ceeding century. 

5. As the Arian heresy gradually declined, the schism of 
Donatus began to rise on its ruins. The first appearance of 
this schism is dated from about the middle of the fourth cen- 
tury. Donatus, a turbulent prelate, with several other Bishops, 
contested the validity of the election and consecration of 
Cecilian, Bishop of Carthage, and even went so far as to 
pass sentence of deposition against him, and to elect Majo- 
rian in his place. In defiance of all authority, they supported 
this violent measure, and on the death of Majorian, they 
elected one Donatus, from whom the party properly derives 
its name. To schism they added heresy, asserting that God, 
the Son, was less than the Father, and greater than the Holy 
Ghost ; that the Church had failed, and that with them alone 
existed true virtue. Towards the close of the fourth, and 
the beginnino^ of the fifth century, they had greatly multi- 
plied ; and with their numbers, their violence also increased; 
they denounced open hostilities against the Catholic clergy, 
drove them by force from their churches, profaned the sacred 
vessels, and overturned the altars. After the great confer- 
ence held at Carthage during the year 411, at which St. 
Augustine, the illustrious Bishop of Hippo, in the most sat- 
isfactory manner, refuted the arguments of the Donatists, 
we find that the heresy rapidly declined. But before it had 
entirely disappeared, the Pela'gian heresy grew into being. 

6. Pela'gius, the founder of this new sect, by birth a 
Briton, was a monk of Bangor, in Wales, from which place 
he went to Rome during the fourth century. He denied the 
existence of original sin in the soul of man, and rejected the 
necessity of divine grace for the merit of good works, con- 

Who are among the persons most distinguished for their learnini^, 
etc, ?— 5. As the Arian lieresy declined, what schism arose? What is 
said of Donatus? To schism what did they add and assert? What 
did they denounce ? After the great conference at Carthage, what do 
we find? — 6. What is said of Pelagius? What did he deny, reject, 
etc.? 



THE CHURCH. 523 

tending that Adam, by sinning, only affected himself, and 
that his descendants are now born in that state in which 
they would have been had he never sinned. These errors 
were repeatedly condemned by several local councils held 
about this period, and refuted by the unanswerable argu- 
ments of the great Doctor, St. Augustine. 

Y. About the year 428, the Nestorian heresy was first 
broached at Constantinople. Nesto'rius, from whom the 
heresy takes its name, was at the time Bishop of that city. 
In opposition to the Catholic doctrine, he taught that there 
were two distinct persons in Jesus Christ, namely, that of God 
and that of man, joined together by a moral union in such 
a manner that the Godhead dwelt in the humanity merely 
as a temple. Hence he denied the Incarnation, or that God 
was made man, and asserted that the Blessed Virgin Mary 
ought not to be styled the Mother of God, but the mother 
of the Man Christ, whose humanity was only the temple of 
the Divinity. This strange doctrine, delivered for the first 
time from the pulpit of the great church of St. Sophia, so 
shocked the Catholic audience, that they closed their ears 
and rushed from the holy place. These errors of Nestorius 
were condemned by the third General Council held at Ephe- 
sus, A. D. 431. 

8. About twenty years after this event, the fourth General 
Council was held at Chalcedon for the purpose of condemn- 
ing the errors of Eu'tychus, who admitted but one nature in 
Jesus Christ, and maintained that His human nature was 
totally absorbed by the divine, and became one with it ; so 
that in his opinion Christ had no real body, and consequently, 
as divine nature is incapable of suffering, He had neither died 
nor suffered really, but in appearance only. The heresy, how- 
ever, continued to increase, causing violence and confusion, 
particularly in the east, until after the fifth General Council, 
held at Constantinople, during the year 553, when it gradu- 
ally declined. 

9. But the Catholic Church was not destined to enjoy a 
long continuance of repose. One heresy was no sooner 
checked and proscribed, than a new one started up in its 
place. Error had often found protection in the imperial pal- 
By whom were these errors condemned and refuted ? — 7. About the 

year 428, what took place ? What was Nestorius? What did he teach ? 
Hence, what did he deny and assert ? Where was this strange doctrine 
first delivered, and what followed ? — 8. When and why was the fourth 
general council held? What did Eutychus admit and maintain ? When 
and where was the fifth general council held ? 



624 THE CHURCH. 

ace, but in the present instance we find the Emperor himself 
becoming the founder of a new ridiculous sect, called the 
Icon' aclasis, or Image breakers. Leo, surnamed the Isau'- 
rian, having ascended the throne of Constantinople, con- 
ceived a great aversion to the images of Christ and the saints, 
which were used in the churches, and ordered their removal 
under the severest penalties. In carrying this impious and 
fanatical edict into eifect, much violence and bloodshed was 
occasioned ; and the disturbance continued to rage until the 
convocation of the seventh General Council, held at Nice to- 
wards the close of the year *78t. This Council was attended 
by about three hundred Bishops, the representatives of the 
Catholic Church from all parts of the Christian world, and 
after due deliberation they unanimously declared that the 
pictures and images of Jesus Christ and His saints are use- 
ful in the churches and other places ; that they recall forcibly 
to the minds of those who behold them the scenes they rep- 
resent ; that they may be venerated and honored, not indeed 
with that supreme honor which belongs to God alone, but 
with a relative and inferior honor, such as every Christian 
entertains for the Holy Bible in which the Divine Law is 
written. 

10. In the year 866, Pho'tius, through the meddlesome 
influence of imperial authority, was placed in the patriarchal 
chair of Constantinople, to the forcible exclusion of St. Igna- 
tius, its lawful incumbent. Proceeding from one extrava- 
gance to another, Photius at length, calling together a synod 
of twenty-one Bishops, pronounced sentence of deposition 
and excommunication against the Roman Pontiff, Pope Nich- 
olas. Upon the accession of Leo, surnamed the Wise, Pho- 
tius was compelled to relinquish his usurj^ed dignity and to 
retire to a monastery in Armenia, where he died in the year 
893. But the foundation of the Greek Schism was thus 
commenced, and finally completed by Ilichael Cerularius, 
in 1053. On the death oi Alexis, Michael, from the bumble 
condition of a monk, was to succeed him in the patriarchal 
chair. Shortly after his elevation, he began by his acts and 
writings to display his inveterate prejudice against the dis- 
cipline and doctrine of the Catholic Church. 

9. In the present instance, what do we find? What is said of Leo? 
When was the seventh general council held? By whom was it at- 
tended? What did they unanimously declare? — 10. In 866, what took 
place? What did he at length pronounce? On the accession of Leo, 
what is said of Photius? By whom and when waa the Greek schism 
completed ? 



THE CHURCH. 625 

11. St. Leo, the Roman Pontiff, seeing that everything 
seemed to threaten an open rupture, did all in his power to 
prevent it. He sent the celebrated Cardinal Humber to 
Constantinople for the purpose of effecting an adjustment of 
the difficulties, but without success. Michael now threw off 
all restraint, assumed the title of Universal Patriarch, and 
published an act of excommunication against the Pope and 
the whole Church of the West ; and proceeding from schism 
to heresy, he denied the procession of the Holy Ghost from 
God the Son, as well as from the Father. The maintenance 
of this error, with the rejection of the jurisdiction of the 
Pope, besides some variation in points of discipline, form the 
only difference at present between the Greek schismatics and 
the Catholic Church. 

12. While these things were being transacted in the East, 
new errors arose in the West. Berenga'rius, Archdeacon of 
Angers, and a native of Tours, in France, began to dogma- 
tize against second marriages, also against the necessity of 
infant baptism, and, lastly, against the real presence of the 
Body of Christ in the Holy Eucharist. Several local coun- 
cils were held for the purpose of ascertaining the teaching of 
the Church on these different points of doctrine. Berengarius 
being cited to appear before them, renounced his positions, 
but afterwards propagated them in the new. In the year 
lot 9, during the pontificate of St. Gregory YII., a great 
council was held at Rome, at which one hundred and fifty 
Bishops assisted. Before the assembled prelates, Berengarius 
again solemnly recanted his opinions, confessed that he had 
been deceived, and threv/ his writings into the fire. It is gen- 
erally believed that after this he remained in the communion 
of the Catholic Church until his death, which took place 
during the year 1088. 

13. From an early period, it had been customary for Kings 
and Emperors to present the ring and crosier to all Bishops 
elected within their respective dominions. Against this 
questionable custom, called Investiture, the Sovereign Pon- 
tiffs had long declaimed, as it was often productive of evil 
consequences, subjecting the Church to the necessity of wait- 
ing on the capricious will of the sovereign to fill the vacant 
bishoprics. During the pontificate of Gregory VIL, the 

11. What did St. Leo do? What did Michael assume, publish, and 
deny? — 12. What is said of Berengarius? In 1079, wliat took place? 
What did Berengarius solemnly do? What is generally believed? — 13. 
From an early period, what had been the custom? Why* did the Sov- 
ereign Pontiff declaim against it ? 



526 THE CHURCH. 

privilege was warmly contested against Henry IV., Em- 
peror of Germany, and continued to be a subject of dispute 
until the affair was finally settled at the Council of Lateran, 
held in the year 1123, when his successor, Henry Y., re- 
nounced his pretensions to the right of Investiture. 

14. Shortly after this period, the peace of the Church was 
again interrupted by the pretension of two claimants to the 
Papal Chair. On the death of Honorius II., Innocent II. 
was chosen to succeed him by a majority of the Cardinals, 
not, however, without strong opposition on the part of Car- 
dinal Peter, who had long aspired to the pontifical dignity. 
This ambitious man had the address to procure his election 
in opposition to the lawful pontiff, whom he expelled from 
Rome, and played the part of usurper until his death, in the 
year 1138. The most striking circumstances that distinguish 
the close of this and the greater part of the following cen- 
tury, were the Crusades, or sacred wars, undertaken for the 
recovery of the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels ; 
but of these we have spoken in a preceding part of the 
work. 

15. During the pontificate of Gregory IX., a treaty of 
union was commenced between the Greek schismatics and the 
Catholic Church ; and although it did not receive the entire 
approbation of the Greek nation, still it seemed to promise a 
happy issue. The project was eagerly pursued by the suc- 
ceeding Pope, and finally accomplished in the time of Greg- 
ory X., at the great Council held at Lyons, in France, a. d. 
1274. Unhappily, however, this union was of short dura- 
tion. On the death of Michael, the Greek Emperor, his son, 
Andron'icus, who had ever been averse to the union, openly 
disavowed the measure, and in a short time frustrated all 
that had been accomplished at the Council of Lyons. The 
Bishops, who had signed and refused to retract the union, 
were deposed, and the Greek Church a second time plunged 
into heresy and schism. 

16. On the death of Pope Gregory XL, Urban IV. was 
chosen to succeed him in the pontifical throne. At this time 
the abuses committed by the agents and officers of the Ro- 
man Court had become a subject of loud complaint. A laud- 
When was the affair finally settled ? — 14. By what was the peace of 

the Church interrupted ? On the death of Honorius, what took place? 
What striking circumstance is mentioned? — 15. What was done during 
the pontificate of Gregory IX.? When was it finally accomplished? 
On the death of Michael, what was done by his son ? — 16. Who suc- 
ceeded Gregory XI. ? 



THE CHURCH. 527 

able zeal in effecting- reforms carried this Pontiff to a degree 
of severity which was deemed imprudent. In his exhorta- 
tions and reprimands, he spared not even the Cardinals 
themselves. They felt the justness of his censures, but 
rather than reform the causes of complaint, they chose to 
involve the whole Catholic world in confusion. Retiring 
from Rome to the number of fifteen, the Cardinals proceeded 
to Fondi, where, declaring the Holy See vacant, they chose 
for Pope, Robert, of Geneva, who took the name of Clement, 
and fixed his residence at Avignon, a. d. 1379. Urban, how- 
ever, steadily maintained his authority until his death in 
1389. Five years afterwards, the Anti-Pope Clement was 
called from the busy scenes of life to the silence of the 
tomb. Among the great Saints of the middle ages were, St. 
Bede, St. Bernard, St. Anselm, St. Lawrence O'Toole, St. 
Dominic, founder of the Dominican Order ; St. Francis, of 
Assisium, founder of the Franciscans ; St. Bonaventure, and 
St. Thomas Aquinas, the prince of Christian philosophers. 

17. About the year 1385, in the latter part of the reign of 
Edward III., John Wickliffe became a religious stumbling- 
block in England. He had received a liberal education in 
the University of Oxford, where he subsequently gave les- 
sons in theology with much applause. The erroneous doc- 
trines advanced by Wickliffe were chiefly the following: 
He maintained that a bishop or priest in the state of 
mortal sin, could not ordain, consecrate, or baptize ; that 
the substance of the bread and wine remain in the sacra- 
ment after consecration, and that Christ was not really 
present therein ; that the Pope, if he be a wicked man, has 
no authority over the faithful ; that the clergy ought to have 
no temporal possessions, and that auricular confession was 
superfluous and unnecessary. Wickliffe gained many ad- 
herents, of whom the Duke of Lancaster, the King's uncle, 
was the most distinguished, under whose patronage he con- 
tinued to disseminate his principles until his death. His fol- 
lowers are generally known by the name of Lol'lards. 

18. The convocation of the General Council of Constance, 
in the early portion of the fifteenth century, had two im- 
portant objects in view, namely, the extinction of schism, 
and the investigation of the doctrines advanced by Wickliffe, 

To what did his zeal carry him ? Ketiring from Kome, what did tlie 
cardinals ? What is said of Urban ? Who were among the great saints 
of the middle ages? — 17. In 1385, what took place? What is said of 
Wickliffe? What did he maintain ^ By what name were his followers 
known? — 18. Why was the Council of Constance called? 



528 THE CHURCH. 

which were still advocated by his disciples. It was proposed, 
for the sake of peace, that the three competitors would re- 
sign their pretensions to the pontifical throne. To this 
measure Gregory readily assented. John, who was regarded 
as the lawful Pope, showing an unwillingness to resign his 
claim, was deposed by the Council, but he afterwards freely 
signed the act of his deposition. Benedict, the third com- 
petitor, obstinately refused to come to any terms with the 
members of the Council, who, regarding the Holy See as 
vacant, proceeded to make arrangements for the election of 
a new Pontiff. The choice fell upon Cardinal Otho Colon'na, 
who took the name of Martin Y. His election gave univer- 
sal satisfaction, and happily ended the schism which had so 
long distracted the Church, a. d. 1417. 

19. The writings of Wickliffe, which by this time had 
passed into Germany, fell into the hands of John Huss, Rec- 
tor of the University of Prague. Pleased with the principles 
they inculcated, he adopted them, and preached them from the 
pulpit. His eloquence and the persuasive manner in which 
he addressed his audience, gained him many adherents, among 
whom a professor of divinity, known by the name of Jerome 
of Prague, was the most distinguished. Huss being cited 
to appear before the Council to give an account of his doc- 
trines, readily consented, and having obtained a passport for 
the security of his person from the Emperor, he set out to 
Constance. Having arrived there, he began to disseminate 
his principles among the people, for which he was placed 
under arrest and sent to the Dominican Convent, until the 
Council could take cognizance of his case. When called 
before the Fathers, he was convicted of holding doctrines 
contrary to the teachings of the Catholic Church, and refus- 
ing to retract, he was degraded from the order of the priest- 
hood, and delivered over to the civil power. The punish- 
ment which the Germanic law at that time inflicted on those 
convicted of obstinate errors against the Faith was burn- 
ing alive, and to this cruel ordeal Huss was sentenced by 
the civil magistrates of Constance, and suffered on the 16th 
of July, in 1415. About a year after this event, Jerome 
of Prague was also condemned for obstinately maintaining 

What was proposed? What is said of Gregory and John? Of 
Benedict? Who was elected by the council? — 19. What is said of the 
writings of Wicklifre ? Being cited before the council, what did he 
do ? Why was he sent to the Dominican Convent ? Of what was he 
convicted? What punishment was inflicted by the Germanic law? 
When did Huss sufier? Who else was condemned? 



THE CHURCH. 529 

the doctrines of Huss, and was executed in a similar man- 
ner. 

20. In 1439, the last reunion of the Greek with the Cath- 
olic Church took place, at the Council held at Florence. 
After the great point in dispute, namely, the Procession of 
the Holy Ghost, had been regularly discussed, the Greeks 
frankly acknowledged that the Latins, or Catholics, had proved 
their point: A decree was accordingly made out, which once 
more united the Churches of Rome and Constantinople in 
one fold and under one supreme pastor, and was first signed 
by the Pope and Latin Fathers, then by the Greek Emperor 
and all his Bishops, except Mark, the metropolitan of 
Ephesus. 

This memorable event, which had been so well conducted, 
afforded every well-grounded hope that the Catholic Faith 
would once more diffuse its rays over the provinces of the 
East. But from the unsteady character of the Greeks, little 
could be expected. The union, after enjoying a precarious 
existence for a few years, was severed once more — perhaps 
forever. In 1452 a general revolt took place, and, unhappily, 
threw everything into confusion. The Greek monks, the 
clergy, a part of the laity and the senate, rose tumultuously 
at once, proclaimed the union at an end, and from that day 
all communication with the Catholic Church ceased. But 
the patience of God cannot be abused forever. A few years 
after this, Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, 
and the very men who would not acknowledge the Yicar of 
Christ as their spiritual head came under the barbarous 
yoke of the infidel, and felt all the weight of Mahometan 
tyranny and oppression. The grand old church of St. So- 
phia was converted into a mosque I 

21. The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, 
in 1492, added another hemisphere to the wide domain of 
the Catholic Church. While the degenerate Greeks with- 
drew from her bosom, and other restless and unworthy chil- 
dren were soon to rise up against her in various parts of 
Europe, the Church was more than compensated for such 
defections by the addition of a New World. Thus a Divine 
Hand guides the events of time, and history, no less than 
the heavens, declares the power and glory of God. 



20. In 1439, what took place ? What decree was made out, and by 
whom, was it signed? What did this event afford? In 1452, what took 
place? What is said of the fate of Constantinople? — 21. What is re- 
marked of the discovery of America ? 
45 21 



530 THE CHURCH 



CHAPTER III. 

FEOM THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION TO THE PRESENT 
TIME.— A. D. 1517 TO 1880. 

THE sixteenth century seemed to usher in the dawn of a 
new and splendid era of peace, progress, and prosperity ; 
but the pleasing illusion was brief, and was dispelled as soon 
as the tocsin of religious strife sounded in Germany, The 
great battle of religious opinion commenced, and Europe 
was soon filled with rage, scandal, and moral misery. It is 
an oft-told and bitter chapter of history which must be here 
recounted without bitterness. 

2. On the accession of Pope Leo X. to the chair of St. 
Peter, in 1513, he determined to push forward to completion 
a great project conceived by his predecessor, Julius II., of erect- 
ing at Rome a magnificent temple of Catholic worship. This 
was the beginning of the celebrated St. Peter's Church. In 
1517, Pope Leo published a Bull, in which he granted ample 
indulgences to all who would contribute to so laudable an 
undertaking. The nature of an indulgence, and the con- 
ditions always required to gain it, are clearly set forth in 
this Bull.* 

3. The Archbishop of Mayence was appointed by the Pope 
to carry out the intentions of the Bull in Germany. He 
nominated Father John Tetzel, a Dominican, to be the chief 
preacher of the indulgences. It is asserted that abuses were 
committed in the publication of the indulgences and in col- 

* " An indulgence is simply a remission, in whole or in part, through 
the superabundant merits of Jesus Christ and his saints, of the tempo- 
ral punishinent due to God on account of sin, after the guilt and eternal 
punishment have been remitted." — Archbishop Gibbons. 

See The Faith of Our Fa'hers, Chap. XXVII. 

" An indulgence is merely a sequel to the Sacrament of Penance. It 
removes only the temporal penalty, which may remain due after the sin 
itself aud the eternal punishment due to it have been already remitted ; 
and, according to its very nature, it cannot take eftect until all grievous 
sin has been already pardoned through sincere repentance and tlie Sacra- 
ment of Penance." — Archbishop Spalding. 

See Spalding's History of the Protestant Reformation; Vol. I., p. 11 S. 

Chapter III. — 1. How did the sixteenth century dawn? What great 
battle soon commenced ? — 2. What is said of Pope Leo X. ? What did 
he publish in 1517 ? — 3. Who was appointed by the Archbishop of ]\Iay- 
ence to preach the indulgences in Germany ? What is remarked of 
alleged aljuses? 



THE CHURCfl. 581 

lecting the contributions of the faithful ; but whatever these 
abuses were, it is certain that they were not sanctioned by 
the Pope or the Church. 

4. On similar occasions, when a crusade or the like was to 
be put in motion, the Augustinian Fathers were usually ap- 
pointed to announce it from the pulpit. At this time, how- 
ever, they had the mortification to see the Dominicans pre- 
ferred before them. This circumstance tended to pique the 
Augustinians, and led them to reprobate, in the most pointed 
manner, the misconduct of the meml)er of a rival Order. The 
most conspicuous of those who publicly denounced the abuses 
committed by Tetzel was Martin Luther, a member of the 
Order of St. Augustine, a Doctor of Theology and Professor 
in the University of Wittemberg. In the warmth of his 
invectives, Luther passed from the abuses to contest the 
efficacy of the indulgences themselves. The University over 
which he presided, and the Elector of Saxony, espoused his 
interest. The dispute was maintained for some time with 
much earnestness between the Papal Commissioners and the 
divines of Frankfort. 

5. In the meantime, his doctrine, which now began to ex- 
cite universal attention, was announced to the sovereign 
Pontiff at Rome. Leo X., in 1520, published a Bull in 
which he condemned the opinions of Luther, and called on 
him to retract his errors and to burn his writings, and placed 
him under the censure of excommunication unless he should 
comply within a given time. Luther, at first, was loud in 
his protestations of submission. "I throw myself at the 
feet of your Holiness," he wrote to the Pope, "and submit 
to you with all that I have and all that I am. . . . Pronounce 
either for me or against me. ... I will receive your voice 
as that of Christ Himself, who presides and speaks through 
you." But soon his sincerity was tested, and he was found 
utterly wanting. He then determined to appeal from the 
Pope to a General Council, but being protected by the Elector 
of Saxony, he resolved to pursue a more decided course. 
At length, finding himself excommunicated and his opinions 
condemned, he no longer observed any restraint, but publicly 
burnt the Papal Bull in the presence of a vast assemblage 
of the people in the city of Wittemberg, and from that 

4. Who was the most conspicuous, etc. ? In the warmth of his invec- 
tives, what did Luther do? — o. In the meantime, what took place? In 
] 520, what did Pope Leo publish ? Hoa\^ did Luther act at first ? What 
did he publicly do? 



532 THE CHURCH. 

moment he renounced the authority of the Sovereign Pon- 
tiff, and ceased to be a son of the Cathoh'c Church. 

6. This circumstance tended materially to advance his 
cause. The people on a sudden lost that reverential awe 
which had formerly impressed them for everything proceed- 
ing from the Roman Pontiff, and also the confidence which 
they had always reposed in the efficacy of indulgences. 
Luther, perceiving that his doctrines had caused considerable 
ferment in the empire, thought prudent to withdraw for some 
time from public view. He retired to a castle belonging to 
his protector, the Duke of Saxony. In this retreat he di- 
gested his new system of religious change. Having already 
renounced the papal supremacy, he next rejected transub- 
stantiation, the sacrifice of the Mass, purgatory, and the 
utility of prayers for the dead ; also the invocation and in- 
tercession of the saints, and finally, monastic vows, celibacy 
of the clergy, and the merit of good works. 

1. At the solicitation of the Pope and the princes of Ger- 
many, Charles V., who had lately succeeded to the imperial 
throne, assembled a diet at Worms in 1521, for the purpose 
of taking some measures relative to the new doctrines. 
Luther, without being the least intimidated by the late cen- 
sures fulminated against him, appeared before the assembly, 
boldly defended all that he had done or wTitten, and in con- 
clusion declared that his conscience would not permit him to 
make the least retraction whatever. An imperial edict was 
passed, which ordered his Avritings to be burnt, and himself 
to be placed under arrest. Under these circumstances Luther 
thought it proper again to withdraw, but the sudden depart- 
ure of the Emperor to Spain rendered the edict ineffectual. 

8. Lutheranism, or the Reformation, as it was now called, 
spread rapidly through the different States of Germany. 
From Upper Saxony it extended over the northern districts, 
the Principalities of Brunswick and Mecklenburg. It next 
passed into the Palatinate, Lunenburg, Magdeburg, and most 
of the towns along the coast of the Baltic, as far as Prussia. 
In 1530, the Lutheran directors published their confession 
of faith, in twenty-one articles, which are called the Con- 
fession of Augsburg. The following year is distinguished 
for the famous League of Smalkald, when the confederate 

6. What is said of the people? Where did Luther retire? What 
did he reject?— 7. In 1521, what was done? What is said of Luther 
before this assembly ? What was passed ? — 8. How had the Reforma- 
tion spread? In 1530, what was pubHshed? For what is the follow- 
ing year distinguished ? 



THE CHURCH. 633 

Princes of the confession solemnly bound themselves to sup- 
port each other in their protest against all compulsory meas- 
ures that the Emperor Charles Y. might adopt against them. 
From this protest made at Smalkald, those professing the 
new religious opinions have acquired the name of Protest- 
ants. 

9. At the diet of Augsburg, the Princes who had signed 
the confession, pledged themselves to abide the decision of a 
general council to be convened by the Sovereign Pontiff. 
Accordingly, in 1542, Pope Paul III. convoked a General 
Council to meet at Trent, for the purpose of terminating the 
religious contests which had so long disturbed the tranquillity 
of the empire and of all Europe. This celebrated synod was 
not concluded before the year 1563, at which time the Prot- 
estants thought proper not to be ruled by its decrees. They 
had broken forever with the Ancient Faith. In the mean- 
time, a treaty of peace was concluded at Passau, between 
Charles V. and the princes of Germany, which secured to 
the Protestants religious toleration and full liberty of con- 
science. 

10. Among those who bore a prominent part with Luther, 
in the early part of the so-called Reformation, were Calvin^ 
Zuing'lius, Melanc'thon, Car'olostadius, and Be'za. The 
new religious movement soon extended into Sweden and Den- 
mark, and was firmly established in the city of Geneva and 
the Swiss cantons by Calvin. It was about this time that 
Henry YIII., of England, applied for a divorce from his 
virtuous wife Catharine of Aragon ; but being disappointed 
in his application, he renounced the authority of the Pope, 
and assumed the title of the supreme head of the English 
church. Under his successor, Edward YL, through the in- 
strumentality of Cranmer, the new doctrines were effectually 
established in that kingdom. Scotland soon became the 
theatre of change through the preaching of Knox, who had 
imbibed the principles of Calvin during his residence at 
Geneva ; nor were France and Ireland long behind in being 
visited by the strange doctrines, which brought with them 
such bitterness, bloodshed, and destruction. ''Pride and 
avarice," said Frederick the Great, "caused the Reformation 

How was the name of Protestant acquired? — 9. At the diet of Augs- 
burg, what did the princes pledge themselves ? When was the council 
of Trent convoked and concluded? In the meantime, what was con- 
cluded at Passau ? — 10. Who bore a prominent part with Luther? What 
is said of Henry YIII. of England ? Of Scotland ? Of France and Ire- 
land ? 

45- 



634 THE CHURCH. 

in Germany, lawless love in England, and the love of novelty 
in France."* 

11. While thousands were deserting the ancient faith of 
their fathers, the Catholic Church beheld with pleasure the 
formation of a religious society of men destined to carry the 
light of the Gospel to nations over which the gloom of pagan- 
ism still prevailed. The founder of this new Order, Ignatius 
of Loyola, was born in the year 1491, of a noble family in 
Spain. He grew up to manhood, a proud, aspiring soldier, 
and soon became known as a fearless and accomplished com- 
mander. At the storming of Pampeluna he was severely 
wounded, and while confined to a sick room he read the lives 
of the saints. Gracetouched the young nobleman's heart. He 
began a new life. On the 15th of August, in the year 1534, 
Ignatius and nine champions by vow consecrated themselves 
to God for the purpose of promoting His service, and procuring 
the salvation of souls. In 153Y they repaired to Rome, and 
made an offer of their services to Pope Paul III. The pontiff 
gave them a gracious reception, applauded their zeal, and in 
1540 erected them into a religious body, under the title of 
the Society of Jesus. 

12. Such, in brief, was the origin of that wonderful relig- 
ious institute, which from its first )^ears assumed the stature 
of a colossus, which has peopled heaven Avith saints and filled 
the world with the renown of its name and its achievements. 
"It w^as an evil day for new-born Protestantism," says Park- 
man, " when a French artilleryman struck down Ignatius Loy- 
ola in the breach of Pampeluna." Shortly after the founda- 
tion of the Society of Jesus, its members rapidly increased, 
and in a few years they had colleges established in various 
towns of Italy, Portugal, and Spain. St. Francis Xavier, 
one of the first companions of St. Ignatius, was sent to carry 
the light of Christianity to the pagan nations of the East. 
The principal scene of his labor was in the empire of Japan. 
Thence he passed over to China, where he died in 1552. So 
abundant were the fruits of his labor, that in the short space 

* For a more detailed account of the Protestant Eeformation, see 
Cobbett's History of the Reformation, and Spalding's History of the Prot- 
estant Reformation. 

n. What did the Catholic Church behold? Who was the founder 
of this new order? What did he become ? How did he get wounded ? 
And what resulted ? What was done on the 15th of August ? And in 
the year 1534? Vvliat did the pontiff do? — 12. What is Parkman's re- 
mark? Who was St. Francis Xavier? Where was the chief scene of 
his labor? When did he die? 



THE CHURCH. 535 

of one month, be is said to have baptized with his own hand 
ten thousand persons. Catholic missionaries also penetrated 
into the trackless wilds of America, and millions of Indians 
came into the Church. Thus Asia and America more than 
repaired her losses in Europe. 

13. When the discontented leaders of the new relig-ious 
movement cast off allegiance to the Church founded by Christ, 
and denied many of the doctrines of the Ancient Faith, it was 
but the first step on a wide road of endless variation. Each 
struck out a path for himself, and, perhaps, founded a Church 
of his own. Hence arose the Lutherans, Calvinists, Angli- 
cans, Presbyterians, Methodists, Quakers, and hosts of others, 
all professing diiferent creeds and rules of discipline, but all, 
or nearly all, taking the Bible as their sole rule of faith, and 
claiming the right of private interpretation. 

14. When the sixteenth century dawned on Christian 
Europe, there was unity of religious belief. Protestantism 
was unknown. The great nations were one in faith — Cath- 
olic. The close of the same century, however, beheld a vast 
change. It seemed like the work of an awful whirlwind. In 
many places the very landmarks of the Ancient Faith had 
been swept away. Old temples of worship resounded vvith 
new and strange doctrines. For the Catholic Church it was 
a period of severe conflict ; but the marvellous institution 
which had survived the repeated and tremendous assaults of 
the whole pagan empire of Rome was not likely to perish 
amid the wild and bitter revolution raised by her own faith- 
less and ungrateful children. 

15. Among the religious events of the seventeenth century 
may be noted the rise of Jan'senism, which took its name from 
Janse'nius, Bishop of Ypres. The Jansenists seemed to de- 
light in religious gloom. All was rigor and extreme severity 
in their spiritual teaching. They wished to make God a ty- 
rant instead of a merciful Father. They condemned frequent 
confession and communion. They taught that a general coun- 
cil was above the Pope. They toiled hard to banish joy from 
religion, and to introduce the demon of melancholy. But the 

What is said of Catholic missionaries in America? — 13. What is 
said of the course taken by the discontented leaders of the new religious 
movement? What did each do? Hence what arose? — 14. How was 
Europe when the sixteenth century dawned? What change did the 
close of the same century witness? For the Church, what kind of a 
period was it? — 15. What is said of the rise of Jansenism? In what 
did the Jansenists seem to delight? What is remarked of their spirit- 
ual teachino? 



536 THE CHURCH. 

Church condemned those sanctimonious fanatics and their 
false doctrines, and cut them ofif from her communion. 

16. Among the saintly and illustrious personages Vv^ho add- 
ed to the glory of the Christian religion in the seventeenth 
century were St. Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva, Doctor 
of the Church, and founder of the Visitation Nuns ; St. Yin- 
cent de Paul, founder of the Sisters of Charity ; the Vener- 
able John Baptiste de la Salle, founder of the Brothers of the 
Christian Schools ; and the great sacred orators, Bos'suet, 
Fen'elon, Mas'silon, and BourMaloue. During this age the 
Ancient Faith lighted up the forest wilds of America ; and 
among those who sealed their teaching with their martyr- 
blood were the noble Jesuits, Jo'gues, who was murdered by 
the Mohawks in New York, and De Bre'beuf and Lal'lemant, 
who were tortured to death by the same savages in V/estern 
Canada. Father Marquette, S. J., discovered the Mississippi, 
preached the gospel in the Great West, and died on the shores 
of Lake Michigan. 

17. The eighteenth century was an age in which the Church 
had to maintain a ceaseless combat with irreligious reaction 
and barefaced infidelity. Luther, Calvin, and the other so- 
called reformers, had tried to alter religious truth — as if truth 
could be changed by man ; but some of the boldest of their 
followers went still further, and denied the sacred truths of 
religion altogether. This was simply the logical result of 
the irreligious confusion produced by the Protestant Reforma- 
tion. Discontented minds first protested against the Ancient 
Faith; and thus the way was opened to others who protested 
against every religion. Those impious men sneered at all 
things sacred, and called themselves "philosophers." Such 
were Bayle, Diderot, Rosseau, Voltaire, and a host of others, 
whose tainted writings caused the loss of faith and moral 
ruin of thousands. It was shortly before this that the Free 
Masons arose in England, and soon established their dark 
and dangerous oath-bound society in other countries.* They 
were condemned by the Church. 

^ The modern " Free Masons " are of ^^nglish origin, and date from 
the seventeenth century. They are not, as their name would seem to indi- 
cate, workers in bricks or stones. Nor have they anything in common 

Did the Church condemn the Jansenists? — 16. Name some of the 
great saints of the seventeenth century. The sacred orators. What 
noble priests were murdered by the Indians? — 17. What is said of the 
eighteenth century ? What is' said of the boldest of the followers of 
Luther and Calvin? Who were some of the so-called philosophers of 
the eighteenth century ? What ia said of the Free Masons ? 



THE CHUBCH. 537 

18. The latter part of the eighteenth century was a criti- 
cal period for the Church, as Europe was daily approaching 
an abyss of misfortune. Infidel wTiters, secret societies, cor- 
rupt and haughty monarchs, and irreligious governments 
leagued together for the destruction of the Christian religion. 
The Jesuits had the distinguished honor of being the first 
victims immolated to the fury of those powerful wretches. 
The sentinels of the Ancient Faith, they were the first to feel 
the vengeance of its enemies. All their houses in Portugal 
and its colonies were suppressed in 1758. Four years later 
the Jesuits were banished from France ; and Spain, Italy, 
and Austria soon followed in the work of sacrilegious de- 
struction. But even this slaughter did not satisfy the wolves. 
Nothing less than the utter annihilation of the Society of 
Jesus was loudly demanded. The situation of Europe was 
truly fearful. Pope Clement XIY. was pressed on all sides. 
Threats of schism from the so-called Catholic governments 
were heard in case he did not comply. And thus painfully 
placed between two evils, the Holy Father accepted what he 
considered the lesser — he suppressed the Society of Jesus, by 
a Brief dated July 21, 1773. Infidelity raised a howl of tri- 
umph, and soon the Catholic world felt its loss. 

19. The sacrifice of the Jesuits, however, did not calm the 
storm. Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, encroached on the 
rights of the Church, and nearly caused a schism. Immo- 
rality and irreligion were making swift and awful progress. 
At length, the French Revolution fell like a thunderbolt on 
Europe, and blood flowed in torrents. Louis XYI. was be- 
headed, and countless priests, bishops, and others were mur- 
dered. It was a frightful period, marked by scenes of appall- 
ing barbarity. For a time the Christian religion was abol- 
ished by the wild revolutionists of France ; and the world 
seemed to be falling back into the chaos of paganism. But 

with the Catholic Free Masons of the Middle Ages but the name. From 
Great Britain the "Free Masons" spread their society over Europe. 
Lord Derwentwater introduced the first lodge into France in 1725. The 
history of Freemasonry has been overlaid with fiction and absurdity. 

18. Describe the latter part of the eighteenth century. Who were 
leagued together for the destruction of the Christian religion? Who 
were the first victims ? When were the houses of the Jesuits suppressed 
in Portugal? What other nations followed in the work of suppression? 
What is remarked of the Pope and the so-called (,'atholic governments? 
When were the Jesuits suppressed?— 19. Did the sacrifice of the Jesuits 
calm the storm? What fell on Europe like a thunderbolt ? What was 
the result? 



588 THE CHUPvCH. 

the rock-built Church of ages outlived the fearful tempest. 
Here we cannot enter into details as to how the Christian 
religion was restored to France, and the fall of Napoleon led 
to the return to Rome of the exiled and sorely persecuted 
Pope Pius YII. The Society of Jesus was reestablished. 
In the words of De Bonald, '' If a Pope under constraint 
suppressed the Jesuits, a Pope in freedom reestablished 
them." 

20. The withering infidelity of the eighteenth century, fol- 
lowed by the frightful excesses of the French Revolution, 
and the destructive wars of Napoleon, had sobered the mind 
of Europe. The true religion had proved worthy of ven- 
eration, and even the wicked ceased scoSing at it. A more 
liberal feeling began to animate the Christian world. The 
Catholics of the British Islands seriously commenced to 
think of casting off the shackles of religious oppression in 
which they had been bound since the reign of Queen Eliza- 
beth. It was especially the Irish Catholics, who, age after 
age, had groaned under the galling tyranny of the Penal 
Laws.* " These Catholics," wrote the great Bishop Doyle, 
in 1824, "have for nearly three centuries been passing 
through an ordeal of persecution more severe than any re- 
corded in history. I have read of the persecutions of Nero, 
Domitian, Genseric, and Attila, with all the barbarities of 
the sixteenth century. I have compared them with those 
inflicted on my own country, and I protest to God that the 
latter, in my opinion, have exceeded in duration, extent, and 
intensity, all that has ever been endured by mankind for 
justice's sake." Catholic emancipation became a fact in 
1829, when the doors of the British Parliament were opened 
to Catholic members. 

21. The election of Pius IX. to the papal throne in 1846, 
marked a new era in the history of the Church. Though 
banished from Rome by the revolutionists in 1848, he re- 
turned in 1850. He reestablished the Catholic hierarchy in 
England. The Immaculate Conception of the Most Blessed 
Virgin was defined an article of faith in 1854. Pius IX. 
convened the General Council of the Vatican in 1869 ; and 

* See Ireland, page 337. 

20. What had sobered the mind of Europe? What is said of the 
Catholics of the British Islands ? Of the Irish Cathohcs ? What did 
Bishop Doyle write ? When did Catholic emancipation take place ? — 
21. What did the election of Pius IX. mark ? What did he reestablish 
in England? What article of faith was defined in 1854? When did 
the Council of the Vatican assemble? 



THE CHURCH. 539 

one of its acts was to define the Infallibility of the Sovereign 
Pontiff in all matters of faith and morals, when teaching ex 
cathedra. In 1870, the robber government of Italy snatched 
Rome from the Pope. Germany began to draw up a code of 
penal laws, known as the "FalckLaws,"in 18*72. The Jesuits 
and other religious orders were expelled, and a vigorous per- 
secution against the Church commenced. The aged Vicar of 
Christ had much to endure, but he was equal to the trying- 
situation, and manfully defended the rights of religion until 
his death, in 1878, when he was succeeded by the illustrious 
Leo XIII. The present troubles in France, Belgium, and other 
countries, because the Church claims that, for Catholics, the 
studies of the school-room should be seasoned with religion, 
is merely another unhappy instance of the combat between 
might and right. But with right and reason on her side, 
the Church is bound to triumph, sooner or later. 

22. In 1790, the Catholic Church in the United States 
counted but one Bishop, a few dozen priests, and about thirty 
thousand Catholics. There were no Catholic colleges,convents, 
asylums, or hospitals at the time of the Revolution. But 
the growth of the Ancient Faith has been marvellously rapid 
in this Republic, aided as it has been by emigration from 
Ireland, Germany, and other countries. In 1875, Pius IX. 
conferred the dignity of Cardinal on Archbishop McCloskey, 
of Xew York. In 1880, the Catholic Church in the United 
States had fourteen Archbishops, fifty-five Bishops, over six 
thousand Priests, nearly seven thousand churches and chapels, 
twenty-eight theological seminaries, seventy-nine colleges, 
and a large number of parish schools and charitable institu- 
tions, together with a population of about seven millions. 

23. '' The Catholic Church," says Lord Macaulay, '' is still 
sending forth to the furthest ends of the world, missionaries as 
zealous as those who landed in Kent with Augustine,* and 
still confronting hostile kings in the same spirit with which 
she confronted Attila. The number of her children is greater 

* It is worthy of note that eighty Catholic missionaries shed their 
blood for the faith in 1878. The two Orders that furnished the most 
victims are the Society of .Jesus and the Society of Foreign Missions. 

What did it define ? What is said of the Italian government ? Of 
Germany? When did Pius IX. die? What is remarked of the pres- 
ent troubles in France, Belgium, and other countries?— 22. In 1790, 
what was the state of the Church in this Republic? On wliom did 
Pius IX. confer the dignity of Cardinal in 1875? Give some points in 
the statistics of the Church in the United States in 1880.— 23. Recite 
the quotation from Lord Macaulay as given in paragraph 23. 



540 THE CHURCH. 

than at any former age. Her acquisitions in the New World 
have more than compensated her for what she lost in the 
Old. Her spiritual ascendency extends over the vast coun- 
tries which lie between the plains of the Missouri and Cape 
Horn — countries which a century hence may not improbably 
contain a population as large as that which now inhabits 
Europe. 

24. "The Catholic Church saw the commencement of all 
the governments and of all the ecclesiastical institutions that 
now exist in the world, and we feel no assurance that she 
is not destined to see the end of them all. She was great 
and respected before the Saxon set foot in Britain — before 
the Frank had crossed the Rhine — when Grecian eloquence 
still flourished at Antioch — when idols were worshipped in 
the Temple of Mecca. And she may still exist in undimin- 
ished vigor when some traveller from New Zealand shall, in 
the midst of a vast solitude, take his stand on a broken arch 
of London Bridge to sketch the ruins of St. Paul's I" 

24. Recite paragiapli 24. 



BOOK XIX. 

Short Biographical Sketches of Eminent 
Personages. 



Abraham, the immediate progenitor of the Hebrew nation, was 
the son of Terah^ and born in Chaldea. After the death of his 
father, he removed into the land of Canaan, which God promised 
to give to his posterity. In the one hundredth year of his age his son 
Isaac was born. After passing through various scenes of Ufe, he 
was called to the severe trial of offering up his son Isaac in sacrifice 
at the command of the Deity. All his fondest hopes were reposed 
in that son, yet he hesitated not a moment in the execution of the 
divine behest. But at the moment, however, in which his arm was 
raised to take the life of his son, God interposed, and accepted the 
obedience of the patriarch in the place of the sacrifice, commended 
his faith, and thus rescued Isaac from his impending fate. Abra- 
ham died at the age of one hundred and seventy-five years. 

Adam, the first of the human race, created by the Almighty 
from the dust of the earth, and placed in the delightful Garden of 
Eden, with only one restriction laid upon him, namely, to abstain 
from eating the fruit of tlie tree of the knowledge of good and evil; 
this injunction, however, he violated ; and in consequence of his dis- 
obedience, he was driven from the earthly Paradise. He died at the 
age of nine hundred and thirty years. 

Addison, Joseph, an elegant English essayist and poet, was the 
son of a clergyman, and born in the year 1672. His merits as a 
writer procured for him public employment, and in 1717 he was 
raised to the ofiice of Secretary of State. His most admired pro- 
ductions in prose are to be found in the Spectator. He is distin- 
guished for a delicate and gentle humor, and his style is remarkable 
for purity and ease. His poetry is less admired. His tragedy of 
Cato^ however, has some merits. Addison died at the Q,[^e of fifty- 
seven. 

.ffisop, a Phrygian writer and philosopher, flourished about five 
hundred and eighty years before the Christian era, and is supposed 
to have been the inventor of fabulous writing. He was originally 
a slave, but finally obtained his liberty. He travelled over a greater 
part of Greece and Egypt, but spent much of his time at the court 
of Croesus, king of Lydia, by whom he was commissioned to con- 
46 541 



542 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

suit the oracle of Delphi. He offended the Delphians by his sarcas- 
tic remarks, by whom he was killed by being thrown from a rock. 

Alexander, the Great, the son of Philip, king of Macedon, was 
born at Pella, three hundred and thirty-five years before the Chris- 
tian era. At the age of ten years, he was placed for education under 
the care of Aristotle. When he came to the throne, he immediately 
determined on the invasion of Asia; defeated Darius in three san- 
guinary battles; reduced Egypt, Media, Syria, Persia, and spread his 
conquests over a great part of India. On his return from India, he 
made Babylon the seat of his Asiatic empire, where he died in the 
thirty-second year of his age, of a fever occasioned by excessive in- 
temperance. Alexander was the most renowned military hero of 
antiquity, surpassing all others in the rapidity, extent, and splendor 
of his conquests ; but perhaps no other individual ever produced 
greater misery on mankind, if, to the slaughter occasioned by his 
own wars, we take into consideration the infiuence which example 
has had on the career of others, who have made him their model. 
He possessed abilities and talents which might have rendered him 
distinguished as a statesman and a benefactor to mankind, yet his 
military achievements alone have acquired him the surname of Great. 

Anacreon, a Greek poet, who flourished about five hundred 
years before the Christian era. His Odes have been much admired 
for their sweetness, gayety, and elegance. He lived to the age of 
eighty-five years, and his death was occasioned by being choked by 
the seed of a grape. 

An^gelo, Michael, an illustrious painter, sculptor, and architect, 
was born in Italy in 1474. In architecture he surpassed all the mod- 
erns, and is thought to have been the greatest designer that ever 
hved. His most celebrated painting is the Last Judgment. His 
architectural abilities are best displayed on the celebrated St. Peter s 
Church at Rome, the building of which he completed. His style is 
that of grandeur and sublimity united with the utmost simplicity 
and beauty. This great Catholic genius died in the ninetieth year 
of his age. 

Aqui'nas, Saint Thomas, the prince of Christian pliilosophers, 
was born at Belcastro, Italy, in 1226. He was educated by the Ben- 
edictine Fathers of Monte-Cassino and at the University of Naples. 
At an early age he became a Dominican, and acquired a distinguished 
reputation as a philosopher and theologian. He dechned all digni- 
ties and entirely devoted himself to prayer, study, teaching, and 
writing. His students called him the '^Angelic Doctor," and to this 
day he is known by that beautiful title. The works of St. Thomas 
fill nineteen folio volumes; but the substance of them all is summed 
up in his celebrated masterpiece — the Summa Theologica. This 
great Doctor of the Church died in 1274. He is the patron of schools 
and scholars. 

Archime'^des, the most celebrated of ancient mathematicians, 
was born at Syracuse, Sicily, about 287 b. o. His life was entirely 
devoted to science. He enriched mathematics with discoveries of 
the highest importance — discoveries on which modern mathema- 
ticians have founded their methods of measuring curved surfaces 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 543 

and solids. He is the only one of the ancients that contributed any- 
thing satisfactory on the theory of mechanics and on hydrostatics. 
He lirst established the truth that a body plunged into a fluid loses 
as much of its weight as is equal to the weight of an equal volume 
of the fluid. During the siege of Syracuse by the Romans, he ex- 
erted all his wonderful ingenuity in the defence of his native city ; 
and when it was taken by surprise, in 212, Archimedes fell by the 
hand of a rude soldier. 

A^ristotle, one of the greatest geniuses of antiquity, was born at 
Stagyra, in Macedonia, 384 b. c. His father was a famous physician. 
He had an illustrious teacher in Plato. The writings of Aristotle treat 
on almost every branch of knowledge of his time. Moral and natural 
philosophy, metaphysics, mechanics, grammar, criticism, and poli- 
tics, all occupied his pen. He spent three years in educating Alex- 
ander the Great, who was, no doubt, deeply indebted to such a mas- 
ter. He was moderate in his meals, slept httle, and was indefati- 
gably industrious. He tauglit in the Lyceum at Athens. The great 
philosopher had long been afflicted with indigestion, and at length 
sank under this malady. A few moments before his death, he is 
said to have uttered these words: "I entered this world in impurity; 
I have lived in anxiety; I depart in perturbation. Cause of causes, 
pity me." He died at the age of sixty-three years. 

Augustine, Saint, one of the greatest Doctors of the Church, 
was born at Tagaste, a town of ISTumidia, Africa, in 354. His mother 
was St. Monica. He pursued his studies chiefly at Carthage, but 
here he fell into many vices, which he bewails in his Confessions. 
He even became a heretic, to the inexpressible sorrow of his good 
mother. But, at length. Augustine went to Italy, followed by the 
devoted Monica; and the preaching of St. Ambrose touched his 
heart. He was converted, and became Bishop of Hippo in 3v?5. 
The best known works of St. Augustine are his Confessions and The 
City of God, the latter of which is one of the greatest monuments 
of human genius. The illustrious Doctor died in 430. 

Bacon, Sir Francis, a famous English philosopher, was born in 
1561. His astonishing faculties were early developed, and gained 
him the favorable notice of Queen Elizabeth. On the accession of 
James I. he rose to power ; was made attorney-general, keeper of 
tlje seals. Lord Chancellor, and finally raised to the peerage. His 
elevation excited the envy of his enemies, and he was accused and 
convicted of bribery and corruption in the ofhce of chancellor; in 
consequence of which he was fined forty thousand pounds, and sen- 
tenced to imprisonment in the Tower. As an author, his Nomim 
Organmn Scientiarum and his Essays have immortalized his name. 
While, on the whole, the public life of Lord Bacon was marked by 
meanness and dishonor, his literary and scientific works shine by the 
light of a powerful and far-seeing intellect, which towered above 
those of the other men of his time. He died in 1626. 

Bacon, Roger, an eminent monk and philosopher, was born in 
the year 1214, in England, of a respectable family, and became a 
member of the Franciscan Order. To the comprehensive mind of 
Bacon, many of the discoveries made by the genius and toil of later 



544 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

ages were known. He was acquainted with the structure of the 
air-pump, with laws of optics, and the power of glasses. He gave 
such a clear description of gunpowder, that it is evident that he was 
its inventor. His writings amount to over eighty treatises on vari- 
ous subjects, but his chief production is his Opus Majus, or Great 
Work, which he wrote while imprisoned through the jealousy of his 
enemies. He died at the age of eighty. 

BaFmes, Dr. James, the most distinguished Spanish philosopher 
of this century, was born at Vich, in the year 1810. He finished 
his education at the University of Cervera, where his habits of pro- 
found study were known to his acquaintances. ''The true method 
of study," he would say, "is to read little, to select good authors, 
and to think much." He spent four years studying the Summa of 
St. Thomas Aquinas, and was soon after ordained priest. In 1837 he 
obtained a professorship in his alma mater. Soon after this he pub- 
lished The Criterion., Logic, Fundamental Philosophy., and his great- 
est work — European Civilization : or., Protestantism and Catholicity 
Compared in their Effects on the Civilization of Europe. Balmes 
died in 1 848, at the early age of thirty-eight. He is one of the really 
great writers of the nineteenth century. 

Basil, THE Great, a celebrated Saint and Doctor of the Church, 
was born in 329, at Csesarea, the capital of Cappadocia. He was a 
remarkable student, and formed a lasting friendship with St. Greg- 
ory Nazianzen. While studying at Athens, "we knew but two 
streets," writes Gregory, ''and chiefly the first of these, which led 
us to the church, and to the saintly teachers and doctors who there 
attended the service of the altar, and with the food of life nourished 
the flock of Christ. The other street with which we were acquaint- 
ed — but which we held in much less esteem — was the road to the 
schools and to our masters in the sciences." As Archbishop of 
Cfesarea, Basil was a fortress of the Faith. His learning, wonder- 
ful eloquence, and majestic virtue awed even the faithless kings 
and emperors of his time. He wrote in Greek. He was one of the 
most accomplished orators that ever lived. This great Doctor died 
in 379. 

Bede, Sai:n't, an English historian, surnamed the Venerable. He 
was born at Wearmouth, England, about the year 672. In his youth 
he studied with much diligence, was ordained priest, and soon be- 
came eminent for his learning. His most celebrated work is his 
Ecclesiastical History of England, which he published in 731. He 
was a man of exemplary piety, A complication of lung troubles 
saddened his last days; but he supported his afiliction with great 
firmness, and during his extreme weakness, never omitted his mo- 
nastic duties. This venerable man died in the year 735. 

Belisa^rius was an illustrious general under the Emperor Jus- 
tinian. He repeatedly saved the empire by his valor; even when 
far advanced in years, and scarcely able to wield his sword, he 
marched against the Huns, who made an irruption into the empire, 
and defeated them with great slaughter. In return for his many 
services, the suspicious emperor deprived him of all his honors, and 
condemned him to an ignominious confinement, which lasted for 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 545 

several months. li is believed tliat he again recovered the friend- 
ship of the emperor. He died a. d. 565. 

Bonaparte, Napoleox, was a native of Corsica, wiiere he was 
born in 1769. The career of this extraoi'dinary man surpassed, in 
many respects, that of every great conqueror who preceded him. 
In his twenty-seventh year he was raised to the command of the 
French army ; at the age of tliirty, he caused himself to be elected 
First Consul ; and in his thirty-fifth year, he was proclaimed Empe- 
ror of France. During tlie ten years that he possessed the imperial 
throne he was the most powerful monarch, not only of his age, but 
of modern times, and made the world tremble at the terror of his 
name. He raised to the rank of kings his three brothers, his 
brother-in-law, and three German electors ; also Bernadotte^ one 
of his generals, was raised to the throne of Sweden. He united in 
his person the threefold character of conqueror, usurper, and legis- 
lator. He triumphed over civilized enemies; legislated in a refined 
age, and seized upon the sceptres of his most powerful rivals. To 
him France is indebted for an admirable code of laws, in the forma- 
tion of which he was the efficient agent. No man ever enjoyed a 
greater opportunity of benefiting his fellow-man than Bonaparte ; 
yet this opportunity was cast away, except so far as it suited his in- 
satiable ambition and lust of power, to which he was ready to sacrifice 
every principle of justice and humanity. He chose to be an Alexan- 
der, or a Caesar, rather than a Washington; a subverter, rather than 
a protector of liberty ; a terror and a scourge, rather than a delight 
and a blessing to mankind. The close of his eventful life furnishes 
a most instructive lesson on the instability of all human things, and 
the vanity of human glory. He died on the island of St. Helena, on 
the 5th of May, 1821, in the sixth year of his captivity, and fifty- 
second of his age. 

Bossue^t, James Benigne, an illustrious French Bishop and pulpit 
orator, was born at Dijon in 1627, and received his early education 
in the Jesuit College of that city. He finished his studies at Paris, 
and was made a Doctor of the Sorbonne. He soon obtained dis- 
tinction as a great preacher, and his writings added to his fame — 
especially his Exposition of Gatholic Doctrine, his Universal History ^ 
and his History of the Variations of the Protestant Churches. Bos- 
suet died Bishop of Meaux in 1704. 

Burke, Edmuxd, an eminent Irish orator, philosopher, and po- 
litical writer, was the son of a respectable attorney, at Carlow, 
where he was born, in 1730. After studying at Trinity College, 
Dublin, he went to London and entered at the Middle Temple ; but 
without paying any serious attention to the law, he devoted his 
time principally to literature and politics. His style and arguments 
as a writer soon attracted notice, and his Essay on the Sublime and 
Beautiful gained for him universal admiration. In 1765. he was 
sent to Parliament, where he combined the character of an elegant 
writer with an eminent speaker. During the war of the American 
Revolution, he exerted all the power of his eloquence against the 
oppressive measures of the British. When the French Revolution 
broke out, he became alarmed at the progress of licentious princi- 
46* 2K 



54:6 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

pies, and with a view of connteracting them in England, he pub- 
lished his celebrated He/lections on the Revolution in France — one 
of the great masterpieces of English literature. For some time 
before his death, Burke retired from public life. He died in 1797. 
As an author, liis merits are universally ackuowledged. He was a 
writer of the very first order, and excelled in almost every kind of 
prose composition. His works will live as long as there is an en- 
lightened man in the world. 

Burns, Robert, a celebrated Scotch poet, was born at Ayr, in 
1759. He seems to have been a poet by nature; his poems in the 
Scottish dialect are remarkable for their beauty, elegance, and sim- 
plicity. They no sooner appeared in print, than he was called from 
the plough to associate with men of letters. He died at the age of 
thirty-nine. His death was hastened by intemperance and licentious 
pleasures. 

Osesar, Caius Julius. This extraordinary man united in his 
person the threefold character of warrior, historian, and statesman. 
Though ambition was his ruling passion, yet he possessed the most 
splendid endowments of genius, and many noble quahties of the 
heart. Clemency seems to have been his predominant virtue. On 
passing a small village among the Alps, on his way to take possession 
of his government in Spain, before the formation of the triumvirate, 
he remarked, that "he would rather be the first man in that village 
than the second man in Rome." He fi-equently made use of this 
verse of Euripides: "That if right and justice were ever to be vio- 
lated, they were to be violated for the sake of reigning." In his 
military career he was probably never surpassed. He was so rnuch 
the idol of his troops, that in any important conjuncture, his lieu- 
tenant could say nothing more impressive to them than, " Soldiers, 
imagine that Cassar beholds you I" He fought no less than fifty 
battles, in which one million one hundred and ninety-two thousand 
men are said to have been slain. In the midst of his military en- 
terprises, he found time to become the author of several works, of 
which only the memoirs of his wars are now extant, and these are 
much admired for their elegance as well as the correctness of style. 
As an orator, he would have rivalled Cicero had he devoted him- 
self to the bar ; he spoke with the same spirit with which he fought. 
He was assassinated in the senate-house in the fifty-sixth year of 
his age, a. c. 44. 

Cadmus, a Phoenician who built Thebes, and was the first who 
introduced letters into Greece. His alphabet consisted of only six- 
teen letters, to which eight were afterwards added. 

Calvin, Joan, a coadjutor of Luther in the Reformation, was 
born at Noyon. in France, July 10th, 1509. He spent most of his 
active life at Geneva, where he filled the chair of professor of di- 
vinity, and warmly espoused the cause pf the Protestant Reforma- 
tion. He died in 1564. 

Carroll, Charles, of Oarrollton, one of the most remarkable 
of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was born at 
Annapolis, Maryland, in 1737. His father was an accomplished 
Trish Catholic lawyer. Charles was educated at the Jesuit Collej^ -, 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 547 

of St. Omers, France, and at London, England; and when he re- 
turned home, in 1764, he was one of the most finished scholars in 
America. From the first dawn of the Revolution, he grasped the 
principles involved in the contest, and advocated complete indepen- 
dence. He represented his native State in the Continental Congress. 
As he wrote Charles Carroll in a clear, bold hand, on the Declara- 
tion of Independence, a fellow-signer remarked, "There go mill- 
ions," for Carroll was v ery wealthy. " No," replied another, " there 
are several Charles Carrolls, and he cannot be identified." Hearing 
this, Carroll immediately added to his signature, '' of Carrollton,^'' the 
name of the estate on which he resided, remarking, as he did so, " They 
cannot mistake me now." He was a member of the United States 
Senate from 1788 to 1801, when he retired to private life. He lived 
six years after all the other signers of the Declaration of Indepen- 
dence had passed away, and died, the "last of the Signers," in No- 
vember, 1832, at the ripe age of ninety-six. In the last year of his 
life this venerable man said : " I have been blessed with most of the 
good things which the world can bestow; but what I now look 
back on with the greatest satisfaction to myself is, that I have prac- 
tised the duties of my religion." 

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, the prince of Roman orators and phi- 
losophers, was the son of a Roman knight. His father perceiving 
his promising abilities, procured for him the most celebrated mas- 
ters of his time. He served one campaign under Sylla, but on his 
return to Rome appeared as pleader at the bar, where the greatness 
of his genius and superior eloquence soon raised him into notice. 
Having passed through the inferior honors of the state, he was at 
length elevated to the office of consul; and tluring his administra- 
tion, he detected and crushed the conspiracy of Catiline. On this 
occasion he received the thanks of the people, and was styled " the 
Father of his country;" but his refusal to second the arbitrary 
measures of Caesar and Pompey caused his banishment. He retired 
to Greece, but was allowed to return after an absence of sixteen 
months. After the death of Ctesar, he again espoused the republi- 
can party, and thus incurred the hatred of Antony, one of the lead- 
ing members of the triumvirate, by whose order the illustrious 
orator was assassinated, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, a. o. 43. 

Oobbett, William. This distinguished man was born in Eng- 
land in the year 1762, of humble parentage, and possessed but few 
advantages for education. In early life he followed the profession 
of arms as a common soldier, but employed his leisure moments in 
attentive reading. He soon emerged from this situation, and ap- 
peared in public as a bold and elegant writer. The general char- 
acteristics of his style are purity, clearness, and masculine vigor; 
frequently eloquent, but often attended with a strain of torturing 
sarcasm, contemptuous jocularity, and fierce invective. His History 
of the Reformation in Great Britain and Ireland is his best known 
production. He died in 1835. 

Columbus, CiiRisTOPnER, the discoverer of America and the 
most illustrious of navigators, was born at Genoa, in 1442. He spent 
a short time at the University of Pavia. At the age of fourteen, 



548 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

however, he entered on a seafaring life, and after a variety of ad- 
ventures, he went to Lisbon, where he married the daughter of 
Perestrello^ a navigator of considerable eminence, whose journals 
were very beneficial to Columbus. At this period the attention of 
the Portuguese was directed towards finding a passage to the East 
Indies; this they expected to attain by doubling the Ca])e of Good 
Hope, and then sailing towards the East. Intiamed by the desire 
of accomplishing so noble an entei-prise, the active and profound 
mind of Columbus, after attentively comparing the observations of 
modern pilots with the conjectures of the ancients, at length con- 
cluded that, by sailing directly west from Europe across the Atlan- 
tic, new countries, which he supposed to form a part of Asia, must 
infallibly be discovered. The spherical figure of the earth was 
known, and its magnitude ascertained with some degree of accu- 
racy ; and Sir John Mandeville had even demonstrated that it might 
be circumnavigated. Convinced of the correctness of his theory, 
Columbus was anxious to test it by experiment. At length, after 
many delays, he obtained assistance from Isabella, Queen of Spain, 
and on the 3d of August, 1492, sailed on his voyage of discovery. 
On the 11th of October, the same year, he came in sight of an 
island, to which he gave the name of St. Salvador, one of the Ba- 
hamas; he also discovered Cuba and St. Domingo, which he called 
Hispaniola, and returned in May of the following year. He made 
three other voyages to the iS ew World, in the last of which he was 
shipwrecked on the coast of Jamaica. Here for a time he obtained 
astonishing command over the Indians by predicting an eclipse of 
the moon. He died shortly after his return to Spain, at Yalladolid, 
in the seventieth year of his age, a. d. 1506. Among the illustrious 
names of modern times none shine brighter than that of Christopher 
Columbus. 

Copernicus, Nicholas, an eminent CathoHc priest and astrono- 
mer, and the discoverer of the true system of the univei-se, was 
born at Thome, in Prussia. He early devoted himself to the study 
of mathematics, applied his knowledge to an examination of the 
difierent theories respecting the universe ; and after twenty years 
of profound investigation, he arrived at this important truth, that 
the sun is placed in the centre of the universe to illuminate and con- 
trol the whole system. For various reasons he concealed this great 
discovery for thirty years. At length, through the importunities 
of his friends, he consented to have his work published; as soon as 
completed, a copy of it was brought to him, and in a few hours 
afterwards he was seized with a violent throwing up of blood, 
which terminated his life in the seventieth year of his age, a, d. 
1543. 

Oo"WT)er, "William, a famous English poet, was born in the year 
1730. In the early part of his life, he was afflicted with a distress- 
ing melancholy brought on by serious reflection on religious sub- 
jects ; on one occasion he even attempted his life. He did not be- 
come an author until the age of fifty years. The first volume of 
his poems appeared in 1782, and the second volume in 1785. His 
most admired work is his Tasl'., which abounds with beauty of sen- 



1 



OF EMINENT PEESONAGES. 549 

tirnent, combined with harmony and sweetness of style. Cowper 
died in 1800, aged seventy. 

Dante, one of the greatest poets of all time, was born at Flor- 
ence, Italy, in 1265. Little is known of his early life. He belonged 
to a noble Catholic family, and filled many offices of distinction. 
He spent the closing years of his life in exile, and died in 1321. His 
immortal work is the Divina Comj/iedia, which has been translated 
into all the languages of Europe. 

Demosthenes, the prince of ancient orators, was born at 
Athens, about 385 b. c. His early education was much neglected, 
through the treachery of his guardians, who squandered away his 
property. Perhaps no individual ever aspired to the art of oratory 
with more impediments to overcome than Demosthenes ; and in that 
art no one ever attained to a higher degree of excellence. Besides 
an impediment in his speech, he had a weak voice, accompanied 
with a shortness of breath ; the movements of his body, moreover, 
were most ungraceful. That he might remedy the imperfection in 
his speech, he accustomed himself to declaim with pebbles in his 
mouth; and in order to strengthen his voice and lungs, he fre- 
quently harangued on the sea-shore, where the agitation of the Avaves 
caused him to exert his utmost strength, that he might be heard 
above the noise, and at the same time served to give him an idea of 
the commotion of popular assemblies; and finally, he corrected the 
awkwardness of his gesture by speaking before a mirror, and by 
taking lessons from the most accomplished comedians. That he 
might apply himself more to his studies, he retired to a cave, and 
sliaved one-half of his head, so that he could not decently appear 
abroad. Having thus qualified himself he came forth from his 
retreat, and presented himself before the public. His great abilities 
as an orator soon placed him at the head of the government, where 
he exerted all the powers of his eloquence against the ambitious de- 
signs of Philip, King of Macedon. His orations against that prince 
are called Fh Hippies, a name since applied to all satirical produc- 
tions. On the death of Alexander the Great, Demosthenes once 
more attempted to arouse his countrymen to an effort for the recov- 
ery of their liberty. The attempt, however, was ineffectual, and 
Athens was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of ten of her 
public speakers. Demosthenes, to avoid falling into the hands of 
his enemies, suffered a voluntary death by taking poison, in the 
sixty-third year of his age, b. c. 322. 

Dido was the daughter of Belus, King of Tyre. Her husband 
was murdered by Pygmalion, the successor of Belus. The discon- 
solate princess, with a number of Tyrians, set sail in quest of a set- 
tlement. A storm drove them upon the coast of Africa, where 
they founded the city of Carthage, about the year 800 b. c. The 
beauty of Dido and the fjime of her enterprise gained her many 
admirers; her subjects wished to compel her to marry the king of 
Mauritania, but she killed herself rather than enter into a matrimo- 
nial alliance with one for whom she could entertain no affection. 

Dry den, John, a celebrated English poet, was born in the year 
1631. He first exhibited his poetical powers in a eulogium "on 



550 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

Oliver Cromwell ; " and this was followed, in 1G60, by a poem " On 
the happy return and restoration of his sacred majesty, Charles II." 
On the accession of James 11. , he became a Catholic, and was con- 
tinued in the appointment of Poet Laureate^ which he had held 
under Charles. After the Revolution he was deprived of all his 
honors, and from that time until his death he was obliged to rely 
for subsistence on the immediate profits of his poetical productions. 
His Ode on St. Cecilia's Day, and his translation of Virgil, Juvenal, 
and Perseus, are lasting proofs of his poetical genius. His style is 
flowing and musical, and, at the same thue, grand and energetic. 
He died in the year 1700. 

Euclid, one of the greatest mathematicians of antiquity, was 
born at Alexandria, and tlourished about three hundred years before 
the Christian era. His writings were numerous; but his fifteen 
books on the elements of geometry, which consist of problems 
and theorems, with demonstrations, have acquired an imperishable 
fame, and have suflfered but little alteration to the present time. 

Euripides, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, was born at Sal- 
amis. As a poet, he is pecuharly happy in expressing the passions 
of love, particularly the more tender and animated ; his thoughts 
are sublime, and his productions abound with many moral reflec- 
tions. He spent the latter days of his life at the court of Arckelaus, 
King of Macedonia. His end was tragical; in one of his solitary 
walks, he was attacked and devoured by the hounds of the King, in 
the seventy-eighth year of his age, a. d. 407. 

Eve, the fii-st woman and the mother of mankind, was formed 
by the Creator of a rib taken from the side of Adam^ while in a 
deep sleep; thus she became the "bone of his bones, and the flesh 
of his flesh," and was given to him as his wife. She was the first 
transgressor ; being deceived by Satan in the form of a serpent, she 
ate of the forbidden fruit, and oflfered it to her husband, who also 
followed her sad example. In punishment for this offence, she was 
banished from Paradise with Adam, and subjected to all the miseries 
that have since aflflicted the human family. 

Franklin, Dr. Benjamin. This distinguished philosopher and 
discoverer of electricity was born at Boston, in 1706. In youth, he 
was apprenticed to an uncle in the printing business. As his occu- 
pation allowed him but little time for study, he supplied the de- 
ficiency by carefully reading at night the works which he had 
printed during the day, and by this means soon acquired extensive 
information. He was a member of the American Congress during 
the eventful period of the Revolution. As a public negotiator, he 
effectually secured the honor and interest of the country. He was 
Governor of Pennsylvania from 1785 to 1787. He died on the 
17th of April, 1790. His discoveries in science have associated his 
name with that of Newton. He is the father of that branch of 
philosophy which explains the laws of the electric j^w«VZ, and the 
utility of lightning-rods will forever point to him as a temporal 
benefactor of the human race. 

Galileo, the founder of experimental science, was an Italian, 
distmguished for his discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 551 

He embraced the Coper nican system, wliich he endeavored to es- 
tablish from the Bible. For tlms attempting to blend his astronom- 
ical theories with the sacred writings, he was summoned before the 
tribunal of the Inquisition at Rome. Some years after this, he 
published his Dialogues and Memoirs, in which he again endeavored 
to raise the system of the rotation of the earth to the dignity of a 
dogmatical truth. Being again cited before the tribunal at Rome, 
he was lodged in the palace of Tuscany, and for a short time in the 
apartment of the attorney-general. After having received his sen- 
tence and made his recantation, Galileo obtained permission to visit 
his native country, where he died at the advanced age of seventy- 
eight years. 

Gibbon, Edwakd, an eminent English historian, was born at 
Putney, in 1737. His most important work is The Decline and Fall 
of the Roman Empire^ which he completed after twenty years' 
labor. It is an elaborate production, and, as to facts, it is gener- 
ally accurate. In principle, however, Gibbon was a decided skeptic 
and unbeliever. He hated the Cliristian religion. He wrote with 
a view of establishing his principles ; hence, throughout his works 
the seeds of infidelity are widely disseminated, a fact which renders 
his productions highly dangerous to the uncautious reader. He 
scoffs at Christianity, and endeavors to turn it to ridicule whenever 
an opportunity offers. Gibbon died of the dropsy in 1794. 

Goldsmith, Oliver. This eminent poet, historian, and miscel- 
laneous writer, was born in Ireland in 1729, and educated at Trinity 
College, Dublin. He made a tour through Europe on foot, and sup- 
ported himself by playing on the flute. Having at length returned 
to London, he commenced his literary career. The publication of 
The Traveller^ in 1765, obtained for him a high poetical celebrity, 
with many distinguished friends. The Deserted Village^ the most 
admired of his poetical productions, was published in 1769. His 
comedies. The Good-natured Man, and She Stoops to Conquer, are 
also much admired. Plis History of Rome, History of England, and 
History of AnimMed Nature, with the Vicar of Wakefield, are among 
his principal works. He died in the forty-sixth year of his age. His 
life and character were eccentric, but interesting. Generosity, good 
nature, carelessness, and imprudence were the distinguishing features 
of his disposition. His prodigality always kept him in poverty. 
Sweetness of fancy and tenderness of feeling are the peculftir features 
of his poetry. His style is natural and idiomatic, yet in the highest 
degree select and refined. 

Grattan, Henry, was born at Dublin, Ireland, in 1746, and edu- 
cated at Trinity College, in his native city. He was called to the 
Irish bar in 1772. He was a member of the Irish Parliament from 
1775 to 1797, in which his pure patriotism and wonderful eloquence 
raised him to the rank of a great leader of his coimtrymen. It was 
chiefly through his efforts that the Irish Parliament regained its 
legislative independence in 1782. He opposed the union of Ireland 
and Great Britain in 1800. He afterwards sat in the British Parlia- 
ment, where, up to his death in 1820, he was the unflinching advo- 
cate of Cathohc emancipation. Grattan's character was stainless, 



552 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

and he was equally great as a man, an orator, and a patriot. Lord 
Byron declared him to be an orator — 

"With all that Demosthenes wanted endowed, 
And his rival or master in all he possessed." 

Guttenberg", John, the inventor of the art of printing. It has 
been contended that Lewis Coster, of Haarlem, invented the use of 
movable type ; but it seems that opinion is without foundation, and 
that the art of printing, as practised at present, was discovered by 
Guttenberg, of Mayence, about the year 1438, although it was sev- 
eral years after this period before the art was brought to any per- 
fection. In 1450, Guttenberg entered into partnership at Mayence 
with John Faust. It was about this period that the method of cast- 
ing the character in metal was discovered. This improvement is 
supposed to have been made by Schaetfer, who assisted them at this 
time. The first printers carried their types about in bags, and printed 
small pamphlets and the like. The first entire book issued from 
their press was the Psalter, in Latin, printed at Mentz in 1457, of 
which there are two copies yet extant, one in the imperial library 
at Vienna, the other purchased by Louis XVIII. of France, for the 
sum of twelve thousand francs. A complete edition of the Catholic 
Bible, in Latin, was printed in two folio vols., at Mentz, in the year 
1462. From this epoch the progress of typography was rapid, and 
before the close of the fifteenth century various editions of the Bible, 
with a vast number of other works, were published in different parts 
of Europe. 

Haydn, Joseph, a celebrated composer of music, was born of 
humble parentage in Austria, in 1738. He went to England, where 
he published several of his musical works, in consequence of which 
the degree of Doctor of Music was conferred on him by the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. In 1796 he returned to Germany, where he com- 
posed his sublime oratorios of The Creation and The Seasons. His 
other publications are various and valuable. Pie died at the ad- 
vanced age of seventy-six, in 1809. 

Henry, Patrick, the great American orator, was born in the 
colony of Virginia in 1736. In the early part of his life, he was 
passionately addicted to pleasure, and averse to toil, even to the 
labor of study. He married at the age of eighteen, and settled on 
a farm, but agriculture as well as mercantile pursuits, in which he 
subsequently engaged, proving unsuccessful, he turned his attention 
towards the law, and after six weeks' preparatory study he was 
admitted to practice. He served his country in various posts. In 
1765, he was elected a member of the Virginia Legislature, and in- 
troduced his celebrated resolutions on the Stamp Act ; he afterwards 
bore a distinguished part during the period of the Revolution. He 
died at the age of sixty-one, in 1797. 

Herodotus, a celebrated historian, was born at Halicarnas- 
sus, and is styled the Father of history. His most celebrated work 
describes the wars of the Greeks against the Persians, from the age 
of Cyrus to the battle of Mycale. His style abounds with elegance, 
ease, and sweetness. 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 553 

Hesiod, an eminent Greek poet, who is supposed to have flour- 
ished about the time of Homer. His greatest production is a poem 
on agriculture^ which contains many moral reflections, mingled with 
instruction for cultivating the fields. His Theogony, another poem, 
gives a faithful description of the gods of antiquity. So partial wei-e 
the Greeks to his moral productions, that they required their chil- 
dren to commit them to memory. 

Hippocrat3S,calledtheFatherof medicine, was born in the island 
of Cos. He devoted his whole attention to medical applications; his 
writings, a few fragments of which remain, procured him the epithet 
of divine. He died at the age of ninety-nine years, b. c. 361. 

Homer was not only the greatest of the Greek poets, but also 
the earliest, whose works have survived the devastations of time. 
He is regarded as the most ancient of all profane classical writers. 
The place of his nativity is unknown; and several cities claim the 
honor of having given him birth. Little is known of his parentage, 
or his circumstances of life; but it is generally agreed that he was a 
wanderiiig poet, or minstrel. His greatest poems are the Iliad and 
Odyssey. The Arundelian marbles fix the period in which he flour- 
ished at 907 before the Christian era. 

Horace, the most famous of the Roman lyric poets, studied at 
Rome and afterwards at Athens. He accompanied Bru'tus in the 
civil wars, and at the battle of Philippi he saved his life by flight. 
From this period he devoted himself to writing verses, and his tal- 
ents soon recommended him to the patronage of the Emperor 
Augustus. He died in the fifty-seventh year of his age, b. o. 8. 

Hume, David, an historian of some eminence, was born at Ed- 
inburgh, in Scotland, in 1711. He was designed by his father for 
the law, but the turn of his mind led him to hterary pursuits. His 
principal works are his treatise on Human Nature, his Inquiries 
concerning the Frinciples of Morals, and his English History. In 
principle, Hume, like Gibbon, was a decided skeptic and unbeliever ; 
hence we find the miserable principles of infidelity inculcated 
throughout his writings. His History of England, though possess- 
ing considerable merits in perspicuity and purity of style, is far from 
being accurate in many particulars. He died in 1776. 

Isaiah, the Prophet, was the son of Amos. He prophesied 
upwards of seven hundred years before the Christian era. He was 
the greatest and most sublime of all the prophets. He boldly cen- 
sured the vices of his time, and, according to the Hebrew tradition, 
he was put to death by being sawed in two, during the reign of 
king Manasse. 

Jackson, General Andrew. This distinguished man was born 
on the 16th of March, 1767, in the Waxhaw settlement, South Caro- 
lina. His parents were emigrants from Ireland, and followed the 
industrious occupation of farming. Andrew, while yet in his in- 
fancy, was bereft of his father, and left, with two elder brothers, 
to the care of a devoted mother. During the war of the Revolu- 
tion, Jackson, though young, partook largely of the calamities of 
that eventful period. One of his brothers was slain in the battle 
of Stono ; he himself, with the other brother, was taken prisoner, 
47 



554 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

and carried to Camden. During his captivity, Andrew was ordered, 
by a British officer, to wipe tlie mud oif his boots, which he per- 
emptorily refused to do, demanding the treatment due to a prisoner 
of war. The officer, enraged at this refusal, drew his sword and 
struck at the head of Jackson, who warded off the blow with his 
left hand, but received a wound, the mark of which he carried with 
him to his grave. His brother, for a similar offence, received a 
wound upon his head, inflicted by a sw^ord, of which he eventually 
died. After the war, he turned his attention towards the law, and 
was admitted to practice at the age of twenty. In 1788, he located 
himself permanently at Nashville, Tennessee. In 1796, he was 
elected one of the members of a convention assembled to frame a 
constitution for the State. In the following year he was sent to 
Congress, and the year after to the Senate of the United States, 
which situation he shortly resigned, not being satisfied with his 
political duties at Washington. On his return from Congress, he 
was appointed one of the Judges of the Supreme Court of Tennes- 
see, During the war of 1812 he received the appointment of Major- 
Genei-al in the regular army, and defeated the British on the 8th of 
January, 1815, in the memorable battle of New Orleans. In 1828, 
he was elected to the office of President of the United States. 
After the expiration of his second terra, he retired again to the 
repose of the Hermitage, where he died on the 8th of June, 1845, 
in the seventy-eighth year of his age. 

Jefferson, Thomas. This eminent .American statesman was 
born at Shad well, Virginia, in 1743. He was elected a member of 
the Continental Congress in 1775, and was one of the committee 
appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence, which docu- 
ment, with a few alterations, was his own composition. In 1801, 
he was elected to the office of President of the United States, and 
after serving to the expiration of his second term, he retired from 
public life to his seat at Monticello, where he died on the 4th of 
July, 1827. In private life, he was hospitable and agreeable in his 
manners; in ])ublic, the uncompromising, sagacious, and talented 
leader of the Democratic party. 

Johnson, Samuel, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essay- 
ist, was born at Litchfield, England, 1709. He commenced his studies 
at Oxford, but owing to the insolvency of his father, he was obliged 
to leave the university prematurely. Involved in poverty, and with- 
out any prospect before him, after trying various expedients to ob- 
tain a livelihood, he went to London in quest of employment in 
17o7. Frotin this period until 1763, he was engaged in literary 
labors, under the pressure of poverty and disa])pointment. On one 
occasion he was arrested for a debt of five guineas, from which he 
was relieved by the kindness of a friend. His first important work 
was his celebrated English Dictionary, which he completed in the 
space of seven years, and for which he received only the sum of 
one thousand five hundred and seventy-five pounds sterling, or about 
seven thousand eight hundred and seventy-five dollars. The RamMer 
and The Lives of Poets are among some of his principal productions. 
He died in 1784. aged seventy-five years. 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 555 

Joseph, the patriarch, was one of the twelve sons of Jacdh^ 
whose eventful life is so pathetically described in the scripture. 
He was sold bj his brothers to merchants, who carried him into 
Efjypt, where, through the interposition of Heaven, he finally be- 
came the ruler of that country, under Pharaoh. The triumph of his 
innocence, as the reward of his piety, y) roves the care of God mani- 
fested towards the virtuous, and should lead them to place their 
confidence in his protection under the most trying scenes of life. 

Joshua, the successor of Moses, led the people of Israel into the 
promised land, and having divided the country among the ten tribes, 
he died in the one hundred and tenth year of his age. 

Jubal is spoken of in the Sci-ipture as "the father of such as 
handled the harp or organ;" a fact which proves that music must 
have been one of the earliest arts known and taught among men. 

Lacordaire, John Baptist Henky, the most distinguished pulpit 
orator of France, in our age, was born in 1802. He was educated 
at Dijon, adopted the law as his profession, and in 1824 began to 
practise at Paris, where he rose rapidly to distinction. But he sud- 
denly gave up his profession, studied theology, and was ordained 
priest in 1827. His brilliant courses of sermons at Notre Dame, 
Paris, filled the vast edifice with admiring audiences. Lacordaire 
entered the Dominican Order in 1840. In 1800 he was elected a 
member of the French Academy, and died the following year. His 
Conferences and his Lettern to Young Men have been translated into 
English. Lacordaire's style is touching, brilliant, and beautiful. 

Liivy, a distinguished Roman historian, who wrote the history 
of his country in one hundred and forty books, of which only thirty- 
five are extant. His style is clear and spirited; his descriptions 
bold and concise. He died at Padua, in the sixty-seventh year of his 
age, A. D. 17. 

Locke, John, a celebrated English philosopher, was born in the 
year 1632. By the patronage of Lord Shaftsbury, he held a respect- 
able situation under government, and wrote at that time several 
political tracts. Shaftsbury, however, being compelled to retire 
from England, on a charge of being concerned in Monmouth's re- 
bellion, Locke also removed to Holland, where he devoted himself 
to literary pursuits, but subsequently returned to his native country, 
and pubhshed his Essay on the Human Mind. The philosophy of 
Locke is, in many respects, materialistic. He died in the year 1704. 

Luther, Martin, the celebrated originator of the Protestant 
Reformation, was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 1483. He was de- 
signed by his parents for a civilian, but the following awful incident 
directed his attention towards the Church. As he was walking in 
the fields with a fellow-student, his companion was struck by light- 
ning, and killed by his side. His mind was so much affected by 
this event, that he formed the resolution of retiring from the world. 
He accordingly entered the Order of St. Augustine, at Erfurt. From 
this place he removed to Wittenberg, being appointed Professor of 
Theology in the University founded in that city by the Elector of 
Saxony. In 1517, he commenced the so-called Reformation, the 
particulars of which have been given under the head of The Church. 



556 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

In 1524, he threw aside the monastic hahit, and the following 
year married a nnn. He had three sons. The last of his descend- 
ants, a pious Catholic, died recently in Germany. Luther was 
doubtless a man of great ability, but unscrupulous, violent, and in- 
consistent. A vein of insanity seems to have run in his remarkable 
character. He died at his native place in 1546. 

Lycurgus, the great Spartan legislator, flourished about the 
year 884 before the Christian era. He was Regent of Sparta during 
the minority of Charilaus^ his nephew. After returning from his 
travels in Asia and Eg}T)t, he framed the celebrated code of laws 
for his country which rendered Sparta for so many ages one of the 
leading states of Greece. Having established his laws, and engaged 
the citizens not to alter them until his return, he left his country, 
and by a voluntary death he rendered their establishment effectual. 

Melchisedec. Little is known of this famous personage. After 
the return of Abraham from an expedition against some of the 
neighboring princes, who had committed depredations on his terri- 
tory, Melchisedec met and blessed him. The scriptural account is 
in the following words: "But Melchisedec, the King of Salem, 
bringing forth bread and wine, for he was a priest of the Most High 
God, blessed him and said : Blessed be Abraham by the Most High 
God, who created heaven and earth ; and he (Abraham) gave him 
tithes of all." 

Methuselah is not known to have been remarkable for any- 
thing except his age, having completed nine hundred and sixty-nine 
years, the oldest of the human race. 

Milton, JoHjf, the gi-eatest epic poet of England, was born in 
London^ 1608. As a political writer, he has been much admired, 
but as a poet he has been justly celebrated as a compeer of Homer 
and Virgil. His Paradise Lost is one of the great poems of mod- 
ern times. Towards the close of his life he became blind ; he suf- 
fered considerably from personal and political enemies, and finally 
died comparatively poor and forsaken by the world, a. d. 1674. 

Montgomery, General, a native of Ireland, and a distinguished 
officer in the war of the Revolution. He fell in an attempt to storm 
the walls of Quebec. Few men have fallen in battle more regretted 
on both sides, than General Montgomery. He had engaged in the 
American cause from the purest principles; he left the enjoyment 
of ease and the highest domestic happiness, in Ireland, to share the 
toils, the dangers, and the fortunes of a war undertaken to defend 
the rights of a community of which he was only an adopted member. 

Moses, the great lawgiver of the Jews. In his infancy he was 
exposed on the banks of the Nile, in a small basket made of rushes ; 
in this situation he was found by the daughter of Pharaoh, who 
saved his life, and adopted him as her own child. After having led 
the Israelites from the land of Egypt, and having given them the 
divine law at the foot of Mount Sinai, he died on Mount Nebo, at 
the age of one hundred and twenty years, after having taken a view 
of the promised land, b. c. 1447. 

Ne^wton, Sik Isaac, one of the most illustrious and greatest 
natural philosophers and mathematicians that ever lived, was born 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 557 

at Woolstrope, in Lincolnslilre, England. Having lost his father at 
an early period of his life, the utmost attention was bestowed on 
his education by his mother. He studied at Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, and at the age- of twenty-two discovered the method of 
fluxions, which he afterwards greatly improved. But his most im- 
portant discovery was the principle of gravitation. He was led to 
the investigation of this principle by observing an apple fall from a 
tree ; by inquiring the reason why it fell to the ground after leaving 
the stem in preference to taking any other direction. He died in 
the eighty-fifth year of his age, a. d. 1727. 

Nimrod, a great warrior, is the Jirst king we read of in authen- 
tic history. 

Noah, from whom the earth was a second time peopled, is con- 
sidered by some as the Chronos of the Greeks. His eminent piety 
procured for him and his family an exemption from the awful calam- 
ity of the deluge. Having built the Ark according to the Divine 
direction, he entered it, taking with him his wife, his three sons 
and their wives, together with the various animals of the earth, and 
thus, under the special care of God, survived the destruction of the 
world. He died three hundred and fifty years after the deluge, at 
the advanced age of nine hundred and fifty years. 

O'ConneH, Daniel, one of the most remarkable men and great- 
est political geniuses in the history of the world, was born in the 
county of Kerry, Ireland, in the year 1775. He studied in his native 
county, and in France and England, and was called to the Irish bar 
in 1798. He delivered his tirst public speech against the Union in 
January, 1800, and, singular to relate, it contains the principles of 
his whole political career. O'ConnelPs life as a public man is the 
history of Ireland for over a third of a century. He found the 
Catholics of his native isle, and of all Great Britain, sunk in gloomy 
apathy, and degraded by odious penal enactments ; and he raised 
them up by the unaided force of his wonderful genius. Catholic 
emancipation took place in 1829. From that time till his death, in 
1847, O'Connell held a seat in the British Parliament. His life and 
his splendid abilities he devoted to the services of Ireland and the 
Catholic Church. 

Orpheus, called the father of poetry, is said to have been the 
son of Apollo. The power of his music was such, as fiction reports, 
that at the strains of his lyre, the rivers were stayed in their course, 
the mountains were moved, and the ferocity of wild beasts subdued. 
He is said to have been one of the Argonauts, of which celebrated 
expedition he wrote a poetical account. This, however, is doubted. 
The poems that pass under his name are supposed to have been 
wi-itten by a later author. Orpheus flourished twelve hundred and 
eighty-four years before the Christian era. 

Ossian, an ancient Irish bard. He is said to have lived in the 
third century, and to have been the son of Fingal. He wrote in 
Gaelic. His poems were recently published at Dublin, in six vol- 
umes. 

Ovid, a distinguished Roman poet, who flourished during the 
reign of AvwiMvh.^ and under a part of the reign of Tiberius. The 
47* 



558 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

most of his poems are still extant; thej are characterized by sweet- 
ness and elegance, though often debased by indelicate expressions. 

Pindar, a Grecian lyric poet, was a native of Thebes. His com- 
positions were universally admired, and his hymns were repeated in 
the temples at the celebration of the festivals; his odes, which have 
survived the wreck of time, are greatly admired for their grandeur 
of expression, magnificence of style, and harmony of numbers. Pin- 
dar died at the age of eighty-six, b. c. 435. 

Pitt, William, a distinguished English statesman and orator, was 
Earl of Chatham, and born in the year 1708. Being elected to Par- 
liament at the age of twenty-seven, he was soon distinguished for 
his eloquence, and early enlisted in the ranks of the opposition. In 
1756 he was appointed Secretary of State, but his continuance in 
office was of short duration. His popularity, however, was with the 
mass of the nation, and he was recalled to the Secretaryship in 1757. 
He deprecated, in the House of Lords, with all the power of his 
eloquence, measures relating to the American war. His constitu- 
tion was at this time so enfeebled that, on one occasion, as he rose 
to speak, he fell into a swoon, and died in a few days, in the seven- 
tieth year of his age. As an orator and statesman, he is perhaps 
unsurpassed in modern times; and the music and majesty of his 
voice, the gracefulness of his action, the power of his eye, carried 
conviction with his arguments. It is said that Walpole, the minis- 
ter, though supported by a decided majority, never heard his voice 
in the House of Commons without being alarmed. 

Plato, an eminent Greek philosopher, called the Divine, was for 
eight years the pupil of Socrates. He taught in the grove of Aca- 
demus, near Athens, where he was attended by a crowd of noble and 
illustrious pupils. Among them was Aristotle. His works are numer- 
ous, and generally in the form of dialogues. The ancients, and even 
the learned of modern times, have admired and studied the writings 
of this great philosopher. They display great depth of thought, with 
elegance and harm-ony of expression. Among other truths, he main- 
tains, by many powerful arguments, the immortality of the soul. He 
died in the eighty-first year of his age, b. o. 348. 

Pliny, THE Elder, was born at Verona, of a noble family. He is 
the earliest writer on natural history whose works are extant. To 
his public duties he attended through the day, but devoted himself 
to study during a portion of the night. His work on Natural His- 
tory was comprised in thirty-seven books. He is said to have writ- 
ten one hundred and sixty volumes of remarks and annotations on 
various authors, but these have not survived the wreck of time. 
His love of knowledge cost him his life. During an eruption of 
Vesuvius, he was induced to approach the mountain for the pur- 
pose of making his observations on this interesting phenomenon. 
While thus employed, he was overtaken by the burning lava and 
perished, a. d. 79. 

Plutarch, an eminent biographer. His principal works are his 
Lives of Illustrious Men. Having travelled through Egypt and Greece 
in quest of knowledge, he returned to Rome, where he opened a 
school with great reputation. He enjoyed the special favor of the 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 559 

Emperor Trajan, and after the death of his patron, he reth'ed to his 
native place, Ghceronea, where he died, a.d. 140. 

Polybius, a learned liistorian, who wrote the history of the 
Greeks and Romans. He fonght against the Romans in the war of 
Perseus^ and being made prisoner he was brought to Rome, where 
he was befriended by the younger Scipio. He was present at the 
siege of Carthage, and after the destruction of that city he retired to 
Megalopolis, where he died in his eighty-second year, b. o. 124. 

Pope, Alexander, an eminent English Catholic poet, was born 
at London, in 1688. At the age of twenty he published his Essay 
on Criticism^ a production which evinces all the reflections of a 
more mature age. The Temple of Fame^ Rape of the Loc\ the 
Duneiad^ and Essay on Man, are among his most celebrated pro- 
ductions. His translation of Homer's Iliad is still read and uni- 
versally admired. In person. Pope was diminutive and somewhat 
crooked. In disposition he was fretful, but his manners were easy, 
and his wit fascinating. He died in his native city, at the age of 
fifty-six years. 

Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, was born at Samos. He 
travelled through Egypt and other countries, and finally settled at 
Crotona^ where his universal knowledge gained him many friends 
and admirers. The world is indebted to him for the demonstration 
of the forty-seventh proposition of the first book of Euclid, respect- 
ing the square of hypothenuse. The time and place of his death 
are unknown. 

Raphael, the prince of painters, was born at Urdino, Italy, in 
1483. By studying the best masters in painting, he soon rose to 
eminence, and mei'ited the appellation of the Divine Raphael. He 
also excelled as an architect, and was employed in the building of 
St. Peter's church, at Rome. By the general consent of mankind, 
he is acknowledged as the greatest of painters ; he excelled particu- 
larly in beauty and grace. Raphael died at the early age of thirty- 
seven. 

Rousseau, John James, was born at Geneva, in 1712. He was 
of a weakly constitution, but his mind was strong and active, and 
the early reading of Plutarch and Tacitus tended to expand his 
ideas, and to inspire him with courage. Though equally skeptical 
with Hume and Voltaire, yet he quarrelled with the former, who 
had been his protector in England, and incurred the displeasure 
of the latter, for maintaining the immoral tendency of the stage, 
although he himself had written for it. He died at his native place, 
Geneva, in the sixty-sixth year of his age. His works prove him 
to have been a man of transcendent genius, but at the same time 
exhibit the utmost eccentricity, joined with licentiousness and skep- 
ticism. His personal character is a puzzle to moralists. Though 
warm-hearted, he was mean, fickle, and vicious. Rousseau has been 
called the Diogenes of modern times. 

Sallust, the famous Roman historian, was a man of depraved 
and licentious manners. Of his Roman history, the conspiracy of 
Catiline and the -(^^ars of Jugurtha are the only portions extant. He 
died in the fifty-first year of his age, b. o. 35. 



560 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

Samson, one of the Judges of Israel, was endowed with extraor- 
dinary strength. On one occasion he slew one thousand Philis- 
tines with the jaw-bone of an ass. The secret of his strength, 
which lay in his hair, was at length discovered by his wife Delilah^ 
who treacherously cut off his hair while he was asleep, and thus 
rendered him powerless. In this state he was taken by his enemies, 
who deprived him of his sight, and retained him a prisoner. In the 
meantime his hair increased and with it his strength also returned. 
On a certain occasion, as the Philistines were holding a festival in 
the temple of Dagon, Samson was brought in for their amusement; 
but by an effort of his strength, he pulled down the pillars support- 
ing the edifice, and perished with three thousand of his enemies in 
the general ruin. 

Sappho, a celebrated Greek poetess, and inventor of the Sapphic 
verse, was born in the island of Lesbos, about six hundred years 
before the Christian era. She was celebrated for her poetical talents 
and beauty. Her poems were much admired for their sublimity, 
harmony, sweetness, and elegance ; but of all her productions only 
a few fragments are now extant. 

Seneca, Lrcius, a celebrated moralist and philosopher, was born 
at Cordova, in Spain, a few yeare before the Christian era. He be- 
came early distinguished for his abilities, and acquired considerable 
eminence for his eloquence in pleading at the bar. He was entrusted 
with the education of Nero, and while the young Emperor was guided 
by the counsels of his illustrious preceptor, he governed with uni- 
versal approbation. But at length becoming impatient of the re- 
straint imposed on his vicious inclinations, he pretended that Seneca 
had conspired with Piso against his life, and sent a messenger to 
inform him that he must die ; permitting him at the same time to 
choose the manner of his death. The philosopher received the 
mandate with cheerfulness, and ordered the veins of his legs and 
arms to be opened ; but as the blood flowed extremely slow, his life 
was at length terminated by warm vapor, in the seventy-second 
year of his age, a. d. 65. 

Shakespeare, William, the greatest dramatic poet of all time, 
was born in England in the year 1564. He came to London at an 
early age, and fii-st enlisted among the players, and became an actor 
on the stage. He, however, shortly afterwards applied himself to 
dramatical writing, and soon gained a universal reputation. To- 
wards the close of his life he retired to his native place, where he 
died in the fifty-second year of his age, a. d. 1616. As a writer of 
plays, he has never been surpassed; he is admired for the beauty, 
elegance, and simplicity of his style. His writings, however, are 
here and there interspersed with blemishes and moral defects. 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, This celebrated wit, dramatist, 
statesman, and orator was born in the city of Dublin, Ireland, in 
1751. At an early age, he married Miss Linley, a beautiful young 
lady; but he did not obtain her without some difficulty, being 
obliged to fight two duels with a Captain Matthews, on her account. 
On the conclusion of Sheridan's speech on the impeachment of Mr. 
Hastings, the whole assembly, members, j^eers, and straugerb, in 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 561 

"Westminster Hall, joined in a tumultuous burst of applause. A 
motion was immediately made to adjourn, in order that the mem- 
bei-s might recover fi-om the effect of his overpowering eloquence. 
His comedies, The School for Scandal^ The Rivals^ and The Critic, 
place him at the head of British writers of comedy, Sheridan, un- 
happily, undermined his fine constitution hy intemperance, and, in 
1816, died at London in needy circumstances. 

Socrates was a native of Athens. In early life he followed the 
profession of his father, who was a statuary. He was also a soldier 
for some time. But he is far more distinguished as a philosopher 
and moralist, than as a warrior. He was remarkable for the mild- 
ness of his disposition, and acquired that serenity of mind, and firm- 
ness of countenance, which the most alarming dangers could not 
destroy, nor the most sudden calamities alter. He inculcated the 
purest principles of morality, and supported the doctrine of the 
immortality of the soul. Being accused by his enemies on a false 
charge of corrupting the youth of Athens, he was condemned to 
death; accordingly, he drank the juice of the hemlock, and calmly 
expired, in the seventieth year of his age, b. c. 401, 

Solon, the great Athenian legislator, and one of the wise men 
of Greece, was born at Salamis, and educated at Athens. Having 
been elected Archon, he reformed every departujent of the govern- 
ment. He instituted the Areojj'agvs, regulated the Prytaneum, and 
his laws continued to flourish for neai'ly four hundred years. He 
died in the eightieth year of his age, b. c. 558. 

Solomon, the wisest of mankind, was the son of David^ King 
of Israel. The early part of his life was distinguished for exemplary 
piety, but he afterwards fell even into idolatry. He mai-ried no less 
tlian one thousand wives, seven hundred of whom held the title of 
queens. It is believed that he I'epented before his death. The 
temple which he built at Jerusalem rendered his name memorable. 
He wrote the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes^ and Canticles. He 
died in the fifty-eighth year of his age and fortieth of his reign, 
B. c. 975. 

Sophocles, an eminent tragic poet of Greece, the cotemporary 
and rival of Euripides^ was born about 4:97 b. o. Towards the close 
of his life, being accused of insanity by his children, who wished 
to obtain his ])ossessions, the poet composed and read his tragedy 
of CEdipus, and then asked his judges whether the author of such a 
performance could be insane. He was immediately acquitted, to 
the c(mfusion of his ungrateful offspring. He died in his ninety- 
first year, of excessive joy, on hearing that he had obtained a poeti- 
cal prize at the Olympic games. 

Spenser, Edmund, an eminent English poet, flourished during 
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by whom he was employed for some 
time in ])ublic life. His most celebrated production is his Fairy 
Queen. He died at London in 1598, 

Swift, JoNATHAisr, distinguished as a wit, poet, and prose writer, 
was born at Dublin, Ireland, in 1667. About the year 1694 he took 
orders as a minister in the Church of England, and soon became 
Dean of St. Patrick'' s in Dublin. After the accession of Queen Anne^ 

2L 



562 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES 

he became deeply engaged in political controversy, and wrote some 
able political works. He died in 1745. Among other works, he was 
the author of Gullivers Travels and Tale of a Tub. . Sicift was ec- 
centric in the extreme. He delighted to differ from all other men on 
those subjects in which all others agreed. Though married, he was 
never known to be in the company of his wife except in the pres- 
ence of a third person. Swift's character is hard to be understood 
— in short, one of the puzzles of history. 

Ta'citus, the celebrated Roman historian, was born some time in 
the first century of our era. He held various positions under the 
Emperors Vespasian, Titus, Domitian, and Nerva. He died in the 
early part of the second century, but the exact year is unknown. 
Tacitus is one of tlie greatest of historians. 

Thales was born at Miletus in Ionia. He was distinguished for 
his high attainments in philosophy, geometry, and astronomy. He 
was the first who calculated the solar eclipse, and the founder of the 
Ionic sect of philosophy. He died at the age of ninety-six years, 
B. c. 548. 

Theocritus, a pastoral poet, who flourished at Syracuse, b. o. 
282. A few fragments of his poetical compositions, written in the 
Doric dialect, are yet extant, and admired for their beauty, elegance, 
and simplicity. He is said to have written several invectives against 
Hiero^ King of Syracuse, by whose order he was put to death. 

Varro, a learned Roman, who is said to have written no less 
than three hundred volumes; all of which are lost, except two frag- 
ments. He died at the age of eighty-eight years, b. c. 28. 

Virgil, an illustrious Roman poet, was born in a village near 
Mantua., Italy, about seventy years before the Christian era. Hav- 
ing lost his farm in the distribution of the lands to the soldiers of 
Augustus, he repaired to Rome and procured the restoration of his 
property through the iufiuence of Mecfenas. His most celebrated 
Avritings are his Bucolics, Georgics., and his great epic poem, the 
j^neid. He enjoyed the particular friendship and patronage of 
Augustus. Virgil died at Brundusium in the fifty-first year of his 
age, B.C. 19. 

Voltaire, Marie Francis, an eminent French poet and writer, 
was born in the year 1694. In early life he evinced superior pow- 
ers of mind ; and his fondness for satire, directed against the gov- 
ernment, caused his imprisonment in the Bastile., from which he was 
at length hberated through the influence of the Duke of Orleans. 
After this event he devoted himself more to the composition of 
poetry. His principal efforts were directed towards the drama; and 
\\\s Alzire, Mahomet, and Merope place him among the first of the 
dramatic poets of France. He spent much of his time at the court 
of Frederick II., king of Prussia; but at length fixed his residence in 
a village on the borders of France. His life was that of a bad man. 
The boldness, downright blasphemy, and awful extravagance of his 
writings often justly exposed him to danger, and compelled him at 
different times to retire to solitude. He died while on a visit to 
Paris, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. His last moments are 
said to have been attended with the utmost horror and dread at the 



OF EMINENT PERSONAGES. 563 

reflection of the irreligious and atheistical tendency of his writings, 
which have been regarded as one of the agents in bringing about 
tlie appalling calamities which befell France in the wild and bloody 
times of the Revolution. 

"Washington, George. This illustrious general, patriot, and 
statesman, was born in the year 1732, in the county of Fairfax, Vir- 
ginia. He was educated under the care of a private tutor, and dis- 
tinguished himself for his progress in mathematics and engineering. 
The principal events of his life have been already noticed. After 
the struggle, which procured the independence of America, he re- 
signed his mihtary command, and again retired to the tranquillity 
of private life. In 1789, he Avas called by the unanimous voice of 
his countrymen to fill the high office of President of the United 
States. Having filled that station a second term, or eight years in 
all, he declined the honor of being again re-elected, and returned to 
his peaceful residence of Mount Vernon, where he died after a few 
days' illness, on the 14th of December, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year 
of his age. The history of his country is the best eulogium of this 
great man ; his most lasting monument, the love and admiration of 
the world. Washington never had any offspring. In his twenty- 
seventh year he married Mrs. Custis, a lady possessed of every ac- 
complishment that contributes to domestic fehcity. At his death, 
he directed all his servants should be emancipated after Mrs. Wash- 
ington's decease. 

Wiseman, Oaedinal Nicholas Patrick, was born in Spain, 
in 1802. His mother was Irish and his father English. He finished 
his studies at Rome, was ordained priest, and soon attracted atten- 
tion by his extraordinary abilities. As a professor at the Roman 
University he delivered, in 1835, his famous Lect^ires on the Connect 
tion between Science and Eevealed Religion. In 1850 he was created 
Cardinal, and appointed first Archbishop of W^estminster ; and from 
that to the date of his death, in 1865, the life of Cardinal Wiseman 
was wholly devoted to his high duties — religious toil and hterary 
acti\nty. His books and lectures cover a vast range of knowledge; 
and on everything which he handled he conferred beauty and dis- 
tinction. 

Xenophon, a celebrated general, historian, and philosopher of 
Greece. He served in the army of Cyrus, the Younger, and chiefly 
conducted the retreat of the Ten Thousand^ after the battle of Cu- 
naxa. After this event, he continued the history of Thucydides, 
wrote the life of Cyrus the Great, and collected the Memorabilia 
of Socrates. He died at Corinth, in the niuetieth year of his age, 
B c. 350. 

Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy, was a native 
of Cyprus. The early part of his life was devoted to commercial 
pursuits ; but he at length turned his attention towards the study 
of philosophy, which he afterwards taught at Athens for forty-eight 
years, and died at the age of ninety-eight, b. o. 264. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

OP 

REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVENTIONS, FROM THE 
CREATION OF ADAM TO THE YEAR 1880. 



B. C. 

4004. The Creation of Adam and Eve, according to the Hebrew 

text of the Scriptures. 
3875. Cpi-in murders Abel. 
3017. Enoch translated to Heaven. 
2348. Universal Deluge. 
2247. The Building of the Tower of Babel ; the Dispersion of 

Mankind, and the Confusion of Languages. 
2217. I^imrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded 

the Babylonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built 

Nineveh and founded the Monarchy of Assyria. 
2188. Menes (in Scripture, Misraim) founds the Monarchy of 

E^ivpt. 
1996. The^Birth of Abraham. 

1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 
1896. Isaac born. 
1836. Jacob and Esau born. 
1823. Death of Abraham. 
1716. Isaac dies. 
1635. Joseph dies in Egypt. 
1571. Moses born in Egypt. 
1556. Cecrops founds the kingdom of Athens. 
1546. Scamander founds the kingdom of Troy. 
1520. Corinth built. 
1493. Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into 

Greece. 
1491. Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 
1452. The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written. 
1451. The Israelites led into the laud of Canaan by Joshua. 
1434. Joshua dies. 
1207. Gideon, Judge of Israel. 
1193. The Trojan War begins. 
1184. Troy taken and burnt by the Greeks. 
1155. Samson born. 
1099. Samuel delivers Israel. 
1079. Saul, King of Israel. 

564 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 665 

B. C. 

1055. David, King of Israel, begins his reign. 
1004. Dedication of Solomon's Temple. 

980. Rehoboam and Jeroboam begin to reign over Israel. 

955. Abijah, King of Judah, dies, and Asa succeeds him. 

914. Jehoshaphat succeeds his father, Asa ; Ahab, Ahaziah, 
and Jeneram, reign over Israel. 

869. The City of Carthage founded by Dido. 

752. The foundation of Rome, by Romulus. 

724. Hezekiah, tenth Kmg of Judah. 

721. Salmanazar takes Samaria, and carries the Ten Tribes 
into captivity, which puts an end to the kingdom of 
Israel. 

711. Sennacherib, King of Assyria, invades Judea. 

708. Habakkuk prophesied. 

696. Manasseh, sixteenth King of Judah. 

658. Byzantium founded by Pausanias, King of Sparta. 

627. The Forty Years of Hezekiah began. 

610. Josiah slain. 

606. Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the Jews 
into captivity. 

601. End of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

600. Jeremiah prophesied. 

599. Birth of Cyrus the Great. 

588. The Jewish Capital and Temple are burned to the ground. 

572. Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 

551. Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher, born. 

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 

536. Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to 
the Jewish Captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 

534. Daniel prophesied. 

529. Death of Cyrus the Great. 

520. The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is 
finished in four years. 

508. The first Alliance between the Romans and Cartha- 
ginians. 

504. Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 

490. The battle of Marathon, in which Miltiades defeats the 
Persians. 

488. The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. 

486. Xerxes succeeds his father, JDarius, in the kingdom of 
Persia. 

485. Coriolanus banished from Rome. 

480. The Spartans under Leonidas slain at Thermopylae. 

Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Persians, 

at Salamis. 

476. Themistocles rebuilds Athens. 

A great Eruption at -^tna. 

456. Cincinnatus Dictator at Rome. 

455. Commencement of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks of 
Daniel. 
48 



566 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

B. C. 

452. The two books of Chronicles supposed to have been writ- 
ten at this time by Ezra. 

431. The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty- 
seven years. 

Malachi, the last of the Prophets. 

422. Sanballat builds a Temple on Mount Gerizzim for Eleazar, 
his son-in-law. 

418. Disturbances at Rome on account of the Agrarian Law. 

409. jSTehemiah dies. 

404. Malachi prophesies. 

403. Lysander takes Athens. Government of the Thirty 
Tyrants. 

401. The younger Cyrus defeated by his brother Artaxerxes, 
and killed. 

Persecution and death of Socrates. 

385. Rome taken by the Gauls, under Brennus. 

356. Alexander the Great born at Pella, in Macedonia. 

348. End of the Sacred War. 

343. The War between the Romans and Samnites, which led 

to the Conquest of all Italy. 
336. Philip murdered by Pausanias. 

— Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 

332. Alexander conquers Eg3''pt, and takes Tyre. 

330. Darius Codomanus killed. End of the Persian Empire. 

328. Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds sev- 
eral cities, and penetrates to the Ganges. 

The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. 

324. Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thirty- 
three. 

320. Ptolemy carries one hundred thousand Jews captives 
into Egypt. 

275. The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 

283. The Library of Alexandria founded. 

280. Pyrrhus invades Italy. 

277. The translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus. 

266. Silver money is coined at Rome for the first time. 

253. Manasseh chosen high-priest of the Jews. 

241. End of the first Punic War. 

235. The Temple of Janus shut the first time since the reign 
of Numa. 

225. Great victory of the Romans over the Gauls. 

219. Hannibal takes Saguntum. 

218. The second Punic War begins. 

206. Gold first coined at Rome. 

103. The Carthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. 

196. The battle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 

170. Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 

167. End of the kingdom of Macedon. 

166. Judas Maccabeus drives the Syrians out of Judea. 

149. The third Punic War begins. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 567 

B. C. 

146. Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. 

Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 

103. Jugurtha starved to death at Eome. 

90. The War of the AUies against the Romans. 

82. Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible proscription. 

80. Julius Caesar makes his first campaign. 

79. Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 

72. Herod the Great is born. 

63. Victories of Pompey. He takes Jerusalem, and restores 
Hyrcanus to the government of Judea. 

62. Catiline's conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero. 

01. Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 

59. The first Triumvirate, Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar. 

55. Cassar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 

54. Caesar invades Britain a second time, and conquers part 
of it. 

49. Caesar passes the Rubicon, and marches to Rome. 

48. Battle of Pharsalia, in vv^hich Pompey is defeated. 

— The Alexandrian Library of four hundred thousand vol- 

umes burnt. 
45. The Calendar reformed by Julius Csesar, by introducing 

the Solar Year instead of the Lunar. The first Julian 

year began January 1, 45 B. c. 
44. Julius Csesar assassinated in the Senate-House, having 

killed one million one hundred and ninety-two thousand 

men. 
33. Mauritania reduced to a Roman Province. 

32. War declared b}'^ the Senate against Antony and Cleo- 

patra. 
31. Battle of Actium, and end of the Roman commonwealth. 

— Octavius, Emperor of Rome. 

19. Temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod. 

10. The temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time. 

8. Augustus corrects an error of the Roman Calendar. 

5. Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Roman 
Empire. 

4. JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the commence- 
ment of the Common era. 

A. D. 

9. The Roman Legions under Yarus destroyed in Germany. 
14. Tiberius, Emperor of Rome. 

17. Twelve cities of Asia destroyed by an earthquake. 

26. John the Baptist preaches in Judea the coming of the 

Messiah. 
29. Jesus baptized in Jordan by John. 

33. JESUS CHRIST crucified. 
37. Caligula, Emperor of Rome. 

39. St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 

40. The conversion of St. Paul. 

41. Claudius, Emperor of Rome. 



568 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

41. Herod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons St. Peter. 

42. Sergius Paulus, pro-consul, converted by St. Paul. 

44. The name of Christians first given to the Disciples of 
Christ at Antioch. 

— St. Mark writes his Gospel. 

— Herod is smitten by an angel, and dies. 
50. London is founded by the Romans. 

— St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. 
55. St. Luke writes his Gospel. 

64. The first persecution of the Christians raised by Kero. 

— Rome set on fire by Nero. 

67. Massacre of the Jews by Plorus, at Csesarea Ptolemais and 
Alexandria. 

— St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. 

— Josephus, the Jewish historian, Governor of Galilee. 
70. Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 

78. A great pestilence at Rome, ten thousand dying in one 

day. 

79. Titus, Emperor of Rome. 

— Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of 

Vesuvius. 
93. The Evangehst John banished to Patmos. 
95. Dreadful persecution of the Christians at Rome and in 

the provinces. 

— St. John writes his Apocalypse and his Gospel. 
98. Trajan forbids the Christian assemblies. 

108. St. Ignatius devoured by wild beasts at Rome. 

115. The Jews in Cyrene murder two hundred thousand Greeks 
and Romans. 

118. Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but 
afterwards suspended. 

120. Adrian's wall built across Britain. 

135. The Romans destroy five hundred and eighty thousand 
Jews in Judea. 

137. Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of ^lia Capito- 
lina. 

154. Justin Martyr publishes his apology for the Christians. 

168. A plague over the known world. 

177. Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 

189. The Saracens defeat the Romans. This people first men- 
tioned in history. 

191. A great part of Rome destroyed by fire. 

195. Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 

202. The fifth persecution against the Christians, principally in 
Egypt. 

217. Macrinus, Emperor of Rome. 

222. The Roman empire begins to decline. 

225. Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 

236. The sixth persecution of the Christians. 

248. The secular games celebrated at Rome. 

250. The seventh'persecution of the Christians under Decius. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 569 

A. D. 

257. The eighth persecution of the Christians. 

259. The Persians ravage Syria. 

260. The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 
267. The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 
274. Silk first brought from India. 

276. Wines first made in Britain. 

295. Alexandria, in Egypt, taken by Diocletian. 

302. The tenth persecution of the Christians. 

306. Constantine the Great, Emperor of Rome. He stops the 

persecution of the Christians. 
315. Crucifixion abolished. 
321. Observation of Sunday enjoined. 
325. The first General Council at Nice, in which the doctrines 

of Arius were condemned. 
330. Constantine removes the seat of empire to Constantinople. 
337. Death of Constantine. The empire divided among his 
three sons — Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius. 
341. The Gospel propagated in Ethiopia by Foumentius. 
364. Julian, Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is 

elected Pontifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to 

rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. 
367. Gratian, Emperor of the West. 

378. The Goths advance to the gates of Constantinople. 

379. Theodosius the Great, Emperor of the East. 
381. Second General Council held at Constantinople. 

383. The Huns overrun Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the 

Goths. 
410. Rome sacked and burnt by Alaric. • Death of Alaric. 
426. The Romans withdraw finally from Britain. 

431. The third General Council held at Ephesus. 

432. Gospel preached in Ireland by St. Patrick. 

439. Genseric the Yandal invades and plunders Italy. 

Carthage taken by the Yandals. Kingdom of the Yan- 

dals in Africa. 
445. The Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them 

against the Picts and Scots. 

451. The Saxons arrive in Britain, under Hengist and Horsa. 
Fourth General Council at Chalcedon. 

452. Foundation of the city of Yenice. 

472. Great eruption of Mount Yesuvius, seen from Constanti- 
nople. 

481. The kingdom of France begins. 

490. Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its schools. 

493. Odoacer put to death by Theodoric. 

497. Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. 

508. Theodoric the Great defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, 
and then makes peace with him. 

510. Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the 

Franks. 

511. Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four 

sons. 
48* 



570 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

516. The computation of time by the Christian era introduced 
by Dionysius the Monk. 

519. Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the 
Eutychians. 

529. The books of the Civil Law published by Justinian. 

532. Great Insurrection at Constantinople quelled after pro- 
digious slaughter. 

543. An earthquake all over the world. 

551. The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 

553. Fifth General Council at Constantinople. 

571. Birth of Mahomet, the false prophet. 

580. The Latin tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this 
time. 

5S1. The city of Paris destroyed by fire. 

609. The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians. 

616. Jerusalem taken by the Persians. 

622. Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 

632. Death of Mahomet. 

636. Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep 
possession of it four hundred and sixty-three years. . 

640. The library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadel- 

phus, is burnt by the Saracens. 

641. Constantine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poi- 

soned by his stepmother. 
643. The temple of Jerusalem converted into a Mahometan 

mosque. 
653. The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. 
658. The Saracens obtain peace of the Emperor Constans, and 

agree to pay a yearly tribute. 
660. Organs first used in churches. 
680. The sixth General Council of Constantinople. 
685. The Britons, totally subdued by the Saxons, retreat into 

AVales and Cornwall. 
713. Spain conquered by the Saracens under Muce, the Gen- 
eral of the Caliph Walid. 
737. Death of Pelagius, who preserved the Christian monarchy 

in Asturia. 
748. The computing of years from the birth of Christ began to 

be used in history. 
755. The Pope becomes a temporal sovereign. 
762. Almanzar builds Bagdad, and makes it the seat of the 

Empire of the Caliphs. 
767. The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 
772. Charlemagne, sole monarch of France. 
779. Charlemagne conquers Xavarre and Sardinia. 

787. The Danes first land in England. 

— The seventh General Council, or second of Nice. 

788. Irene puts to death her son, Constantine, and is pro- 

claimed sole Empress. 
800. Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Rome. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 571 

A. D. 

816. The Eastern Empire ravaged by earthquakes, famine, 

conflagrations, etc. 
827. Eg])ert unites the kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy. 

Beginning of the kingdom of England. 

845. The Normans plunder Hamburg, and penetrate into 

Germany. 
848. The Venetian fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 
807. The Danes ravage England. 

886. The University of Oxford founded by Alfred the Great. 

887. The Normans besiege Paris. 

890. Alfred the Great composes his code of laws, and divides 

England into counties, hundreds, and tithings. 

891. The first land tax in England. 

915. The University of Cambridge founded by Edward the 

Elder. 
941. Arithmetic brought into Europe. 
967. Antioch recovered from the Saracens by Nicephorus. 
991. The Arabic numerals first introduced into Europe. 
1000. Paper made of cotton rags, in use. 
1013. The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England. 
1025. Musical characters invented by the monk, Guido Aretino. 
1040. Macbeth usurps the throne of Scotland by the murder of 

Duncan. 
1055. The Turks take Bagdad, and overrun the Empire of the 
Caliphs. 

1065. The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens. 

1066. William the Conqueror, King of England. 
1070. The Feudal Law introduced into England. 

1079. Doomsday-book begun by William the Conqueror. 

1080. Tower of London built. 

1087. William II. (Rufus), King of England. 

1095. The first Crusade to the Holy Land. Peter the Hermit. 

1098. The Crusaders take Antioch. 

1099. Jerusalem taken by Godfrey de Bouillon. The Knights 

of St. John instituted. 

1100. Henry I. (Beauclerc), King of England. 

Writing on paper made of cotton rags common about this 

time. 
1135. Stephen, King of England. 
1141. Stephen, King of England, taken prisoner in the battle 

of Lincoln, by the troops of Matilda. 
1143. He recovers his kingdom. 
1147. The second Crusade preached by St. Bernard. 

1150. The study of the civil law revived at Bologna, 

1151. The Canon Law is collected by Gratian, a monk of Bologna. 

1156. Moscow in Russia founded. 

1157. The Bank of Venice instituted. 

1163. London Bridge built the first time of stone. 

1170. Paper made of linen rags. 

1172. Conquest of Ireland byHenry II. 

1187. The city of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 



572 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1188. Third Crusade. 

1190. Teutonic Order. 

1196. Fourth Crusade sets out from Venice. 

1200. Fifth Crusade. 

1204. Latin Empire at Constantinople. 

1208. London incorporated, obtains a charter for electing a 

Mayor and Magistrate. 
1215. Magna Charta signed by King John. 
1217. Sixth Crusade. 
1233. Houses in London and other cities of England, France, 

and Germany, still thatched with straw. 
1248. Seventh Crusade. 
1258. Bagdad taken by the Tartars. End of the Empire of the 

Saracens. 
1261. Fall of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. 
1270. Eighth and last Crusade. 
Death of St. Louis, King of France. 

1282. The Sicilian Vespers, when eight thousand French were- 

rm SSI f'yprl 

1283. The conquest of Wales by Edward I. 

1290. University of Lisbon founded. 

1291. Ptolemais taken by the Turks. 

1293. From this year there is a regular succession of English 

Parliaments. 

1294. Parliaments established in Paris. 

1299. Interregnum in Scotland for eight years. Sir William 
Wallace nobly supports the liberty of his country, de- 
feats the English at Stirling, and drives them out of 
the kingdom. 

1302. The Mariner's Compass said to be invented at Naples. 

1304. Wallace betrayed, deUvered up, and put to death by Ed- 
ward I. 

1307. The establishment of the Swiss Republics. 

Coal first used in England. 

1308. The seat of the Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy 

years. 
1314. The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under 
Edward II., at Bannockburn. 

1319. The Catholic University of Dublin founded. 

1320. Gold first coined in Christendom. 

1340. Gunpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne. 

Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. 

Copper money first used in Scotland and Ireland. 

1346. Battle of Cressy won by Edward III. and the Black 
Prince, over the French. 

1350. The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward IIL 

1351. Coals first brought to London. 

1352. The Turks firstenter Europe. 

1356. The battle of Poictiers, in which John II., King of 
France, is taken prisoner, and afterwards brought to 
Loudon. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 573 

A. D. 

13(32. Law pleadings in England changed from French to Eng- 
lish. 
1365. Universities of Vienna and Geneva founded. 
1381. Peace between Venice and Genoa. 

Bills of Exchange first used in England. 

1383. Cannon first used by the English in the defence of Calais. 

1391. Cards invented in France for the King's amusement. 

1392. The Cape of Good Hope discovered by the Portuguese. 
1394. The Jews banished from France by Charles VI. 
1405. The Canary Islands discovered. 

1412. Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe. 

The University of St. Andrew's, Scotland, founded. 

1415. John Huss condemned by the Council of Constance for 

heresy and burnt. 
1420. The Island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese. 
1425. The court of sessions, in Scotland, instituted by James I. 
1428. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, compels the English 

to raise the siege of that town. 
1436. Paris recovered by the French from the English. 

1439. Eeunioa of the Greek and Latin churches. 

1440. Invention of the art of printing, by John Guttenberg, at 

Strasburg. 
1446. Great inundation of the sea in Holland. 
1453. Constantinople taken by the Turks. 

End of English rule in France. 

1459. The art of engraving on copper invented. 

1460. Battle of Wakefield, in which the Duke of York is killed. 
1474. The Cape de Verd Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 
1479. Ferdinand and Isabella unite the kingdoms of Aragon 

and Castile. 
1489. Maps and sea charts first brought to England. 
1492. America discovered by the great Christopher Columbus. 
1497. The Portuguese, under Vasco de Gama, double the Cape 

of Good Hope, and sail to the East Indies. 

Sebastian Cabot explores a portion of the Atlantic coast 

of North America. 
1500. Brazil discovered by V. Y. Pinzon. 
1507. Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese. 
1514. Cannon bullets of stone still in use. 
1517. The Protestant Eeformation in Germany begun by Luther. 

1521. Cortes completes the conquest of Mexico. 

1522. The first voyage round the world performed by a ship of 

Magellan's squadron. 

1534. The Protestant Reformation in England. 

1539. The first Enghsh Protestant edition of the Bible author- 
ized ; the present translation finished 1611. 

About this time cannon began to be used in ships. 

Six hundred and forty-five religious monasteries sup- 
pressed in England and Wales. 

1543. Pins first used in England, before which time the ladies 
used skewers. 



574 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1545. The Great Council of Trent opens, and continues, with 
various interruptions, for eighteen years. 

1552. The Book of Common Prayer established in England by 

act of Parliament. 

1553. Lady Jane Grey beheaded. 

1560. Beginning of the civil wars in France. 

The Protestant Reformation completed in Scotland by 

John Knox. 

1561. Mary, Queen of Scots, arrives in Scotland from France. 
1563. Knives first used in England. 

1568. Mary, Queen of Scots, flees to England for protection. 

1569. The Earl of Murray, regent of Scotland, assassinated by 

Hamilton. 
1572. The massacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24. 
1574. SoGinus propagates his opinions. 

Don Sebastian, King of Portugal, invades Africa. 

1576. The League in France formed against the Protestants. 

1579. Commencement of the Republic of Holland, by the union 

of Utrecht. 

1580. The world circumnavigated by Sir Francis Drake. 
1582. The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory 

XIII., the 5th of October being counted the 15th. 
1584. Yirginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh. 

1588. Manufacture of paper introduced into England. 

1589. Coaches first introduced into England. 

1591. The Protestant University of Dublin established. 

1592. Presbyterian church government established in Scotland. 
1594. The Bank of England incorporated. 

1597. Watches first brought into England from Germany. 
1600. The English East India Company established. 
1602. Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. 
1605. The Gunpowder Plot discovered. 

1607. Settlement of Jamestown, Virginia. 

1608. Galileo discovers the moons of Jupiter. 

Arminius propagates his opinions. 

Quebec founded by Champlain. 

1610. Hudson's Bay discovered. 
1614. Logarithms invented by Napier. 

New York settled. 

1619. Discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Dr. Harvey. 

1620. The broad silk manufacture, from raw silk, introduced 

into England. 

Copper money first introduced into England. 

Settlement of Plymouth, Massachusetts. 

1623. New Hampshire settled. 

1624. New Jersey settled. 

1625. The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in 

the West Indies. 
1627. Delaware settled. 

1633. Connecticut settled. 

1634. Maryland settled. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 575 

A.D. 

1636. Ehode Island settled. 

1639. The first printing-press established in the American 
colonies. 

1642. Beginning of the civil war in England. 

1643. Archbishop Laud condemned by the Commons, and be- 

headed. 

1649. Fathers Brebeuf, Lallement, and Gamier, S. J., killed 

by the Indians. 

Commonwealth of England begins. 

1650. North and South Carolina settled. 

1651. The Quakers first appear in England. 

1652. The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope established. 

1653. Father Le Moyne, S. J., discovers the Onondaga Salt 

Springs, New York. 

The first war between the English and Dutch. 

1654. End of the commonwealth of England. 

The English, under Admiral Peiin, take possession of 

To ryiH 10*1 

1660. Charles II.', King of Great Britain. 

1662. The Royal Society instituted in England. 

1663. Charter of Carolina, and a colony settled soon after. 

The French Academy of Inscriptions instituted. 

1665. Great plague in London. 

1666. Tea first used in England. 

Great fire in London. 

The Academy of Sciences instituted in France. 

1673. Father Marquette, S. J., discovers the Mississippi. 
1678. The habeas corpus act passed in England. 

1681. Pennsylvania settled. 

1685. Duke of Monmouth beheaded. 

1686. The Newtonian philosophy first published in England. 

1688. Revolution in Great Britain. King James II. abdicates 

the throne, December 23. 

1689. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland by King William. 
1700. Yale College, Connecticut, founded. 

1702. The English and Dutch destroy the French fleet at Vigo. 

The French send colonies to the Mississippi. 

1703. Gibraltar taken by Admiral Rooke, July 24. 

1704. Peter the Great founds St. Petersburg. 

— ^ — First newspaper published in America at Boston. 
1706. Union between England and Scotland. 

1726. Great earthquake at Palermo, August 21. 

1727. Inoculation first tried on criminals with success. 

1732. Washington born, February 22. 

1733. Georgia settled. 

1735. Birth of Archbishop Carroll. 

1744. Commodore Anson completes his voyage round the world. 

1745. Louisburg and Cape Breton taken by the British troops, 

June 6. 

The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, July. 

1750. Academy of Sciences founded at Stockholm. 



576 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1752. New Style introduced into Britain, September 3 reck- 
oned 14. 

1754. Great eruption at ^tna. 

Great earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, Septem- 

ber 2. 

1755. Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, November 1. 

Defeat of Braddock. 

1756. War declared between Great Britain and France, May 18. 

1759. General Wolfe takes Quebec, September 17. 

1760. Montreal and all Canada taken by the British. 

1762. American Philosophical Society established at Philadel- 
phia. 
1765. Stamp Act passed. 

1775. Battle of Lexington, April 19. 

Battle of Bunker's Hill, in N'orth America, June 17. 

1776. Father Serra, O. S. F., founds the city of San Francisco. 

The Americans declare their independence, July 4. 

Battle of Long Island, August 27. 

New York taken, in September. 

Battle of Trenton, December 25. 

1777. Battle of Brandywine, September 11. 

Philadelphia taken, September 26. 

Surrender of the British army under Burgoyne, at Sara- 

toga, in the State of New York, October 17. 

1780. Treachery of Arnold, September 22. 

1781. Battle of Cowpens, January. 

Battle of Guilford, March 15. 

Battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8. 

. Surrender of the British army under Cornwallis, to the 

Americans and French at Yorktown in Virginia, Oc- 
tober 19. 

1782. Articles of peace, between Great Britain and the United 

States, signed at Paris, November 30. 

First English Bible printed in America at Philadelphia. 

1788. Constitution of the United States adopted. 

1789. Dr. Carroll appointed Bishop of the United States. 

Georgetown College, District of Columbia, founded. 

George Washington, first President of the United States, 

April. 

1791. Vermont became a State. 

First Sunday-School in the United States commenced at 

Philadelphia. 

Seminary of St. Sulfice, Baltimore, founded. 

Methodist Missionary Society instituted in England. 

1792. Kentucky became a State. 

Baptist Missionary Society formed in England. 

1793. The first priest (Father iBadin) ordained in the United 

States. 

Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette beheaded. 

1795. The Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, Septem- 
ber 16. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 577 

A. D. 

1795. Prince Gallitzin, the second priest ordained in the United 
States. 

1797. John Adams, President of the United States, March 4. 

1798. Ireland in open rebellion, May, June, etc. 

Admiral Nelson destroys the French fleet in the battle 

of the Nile, August 1. 

1799. George Washington dies, Dec. 14. 

London Religious Tract Society. 

1800. The first bishop (Leonard Neale) consecrated in the 

United States. 

Union of Britain and Ireland. 

1801. First meeting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and 

Ireland, January. 

Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States, March 4. 

1805. Lord Nelson defeats the combined fleets of France and 

Spain off Cape Trafalgar, takes or destroys nineteen 
ships of the line, and is killed in the battle, October 21. 

War between England and Spain. 

1806. The British Parliament vote the abolition of the slave 

trade, June 10. 

1808. Abolition of the slave trade in the United States of Amer- 

ica, January 1. 

1809. Mount St. Mary's College, Emmittsburg, founded. 

1810. American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions 

formed, incorporated in 1812. 

Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 

1811. Two hundred buildings and large quantities of goods 

burnt in Newburyport, Mass. 

An unusually large comet appeared, September 1. 

1812. War against Great Britain declared by the United States^ 

June 18. 

General Hull and his army taken prisoners in Canada, 

August 16. 

The French army enter Moscow, September 14. 

British frigate Guerriere captured, August 29. 

do. do. Macedonian captured, October 26. 

do. do. Java captured, December 29. 

1813. Commodore Perry captures the British squadron, on Lake 

Erie, September 10. 

1814. Napoleon Bonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to 

the island of Elba, for which he sailed, April 28. 

City of Washington taken by the British, August 24. 

British squadron on Lake Champlain captured by Com- 

modore McDonough, September 11. 

Pensacola taken by General Jackson, November 7. 

Treaty of peace between the United States and Great 

Britain signed at Ghent, December 24. 
The British repulsed at New Orleans, December 28. 

1815. Death of Archbishop Carroll. 

The British completely defeated, and General Packenham 

slain at New Orleans, January 8. 
49 2M 



578 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1815. United States frigate President taken by a British squad- 

ron, January 15. 

Peace between Great Britain and the United States rati- 

fied, February 24. 

American Education Society instituted at Boston. 

Battle of Waterloo. 

1816. Deaf and Dumb, Society for the instruction of, instituted 

at Hartford, Connecticut, June 24. 

Indiana admitted into the Union as a State. 

1817. United States Bank opened for business at Philadelphia, 

January 1. 

American Colonization Society for free blacks organized 

January 1. 

James Monroe, President of the United States, March 4. 

Mississippi admitted into 'the Union as a State, Decem- 

ber 11. 

1818. Illinois admitted into the Union as a State, December 4. 

Commercial treaties concluded between the United States 

on the one part, and Great Britain and Sweden on the 
other. 

1819. A treaty for the cession of Florida to the United States 

signed at Washington, February 23. 

First steamship sailed for Europe, May. 

Alabama admitted into the Union as a State, December. 

1820. George III., King of England, dies, January 29. 

George lY. succeeds to the throne of Great Britain and 

Ireland. 

Maine admitted into the Union as a State. 

The American Colonization Society sent out their first 

colonists to Liberia. 

Population of the United States, 9,625,734. 

1821. Missouri admitted into the Union as a State. 

]S[apoleon Bonaparte dies at St. Helena, May 5, aged 

fifty-two. 

Elias Boudinot, president of the American Bible Society, 

dies. 

1822. Columbia College established. 

Massacre of Greeks at Scio. 

1824. The Marquis de la Fayette visited the United States. 

American Sunday-School Union instituted at Philadel- 

phia. 

1825. John Quincy Adams, President of the United States, 

March 4. 

American Tract Society instituted at New York. 

1826. The ex-Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson 

died July 4. 

1829. St. Louis University founded. 

Andrew Jackson, President of the United States, March 4. 

1830. An act passed by Congress, to remove the Indians resid- 

ing in any of the States or Territories, to the west of 
the Mississippi. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 579 

A. D. 

1830. Fifth census of the United States taken. Number of 

the population, 12,850,240. 
1832. Death of Charles Carroll of Carrollton. 

George IV., King of England, dies, June 26. 

William lY. succeeds him. 

1836. Formation of the Republic of Texas. 

1837. Martin Van Buren inaugurated, March 4. 

1841. William Henry Harrison inaugurated, March 4, and dies, 

April 4. Vice-President, John Tyler, inaugurated in 
his place. 

St. John's College, Fordham, New York, founded by 

Bishop Hughes. 

1842. University of Notre Dame, Indiana, founded by Father 

Sorin, C. S. C. 

1845. James K. Polk inaugurated. 

General Jackson dies, June 8. 

1846. War between the United States and Mexico declared, 

April. 

General Taylor gains the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca 

de la Palma over the Mexicans, May 8 and 9. 

Matamoras taken, May 15. 

Death of Pope Gregory XYI. — Election of Pius IX., 

June. 

Storming and capture of Monterey, September 21. 

1847. Battle of Buena Vista, in which Santa Anna, with 

twenty -two thousand men, is defeated by General 
Taylor, with five thousand, February 23. 

Vera Cruz surrendered to General Scott, March 29. 

The Mexicans defeated at Cerro Gordo by General Scott, 

April 18. 

Battles of Contreras and Cherubusco ; Mexicans again 

defeated, August 20. 

Storming of Chapultepec, September 12. 

City of Mexico taken by General Scott, September 14. 

Ex-President John Quincy Adams died at the capitol at 

Washington, February 23. 

The Irish Famine. 

Death of Daniel O'Connell. 

184S. Louis Philippe abdicates in favor of the Count of Paris, 
and escapes to England, February 24. 

The regal government abolished and republic proclaimed. 

Insurrection in Vienna— the Emperor retires, with his 

court, to lunspruck, March. 

Treaty of peace between the United States and Mexico 

signed at Guadaloupe, November. 

■ General Taylor elected President of the United States, 

and Mr. Fillmore Vice-President, November. 

Count Rossi, the Pope's minister, assassinated on the 

steps of Senate Chamber, November 15. 

The flight of the Pope from Rome, and escape to Gaeta, 

November 24. 



580 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

A. D. 

1849. A republic proclaimed at Rome, February. 

Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, declares war against 

Austria, and is defeated by Radetski, March. 

General Taylor inaugurated President of the United 

States, March 4. 

Rome taken by the French — the republic abolished, and 

the authority of the Pope reestablished, July 2. 

Gorgey surrenders to the Russians at Yillagos. End of 

the Hungarian insurrection, August 11. 

1850. Death of John C. Calhoun in Washington, March 31. 

Death of President Taylor at the presidential mansion, 

Washington, July 9. 

1851. Manhattan College, New York, founded. 

Lopez's second invasion of Cuba — is captured and exe- 

cuted, May 19. 

Coup (Vetat of Louis Napoleon — end of the French Re- 

public. 

1852. General Pierce elected President of the United States, 

November. 

Death of Henry Clay, June 28. 

Death of Daniel Webster, October 24. 

Laval University, Quebec, founded. 

1853. President Pierce inaugurated, March 4. 

Mr. King, Vice-President, dies April 18. 

The World's Fair opened in the Crystal Palace, New 

York, July 14. 

1854. Treaty of Commerce concluded between the United States 

and Japan by Commodore Perry, March. 

Passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill. May. 

War between Russia and Turkey— England and France 

form an alliance, and declare war against Russia, May. 

1855. Troubles in Kansas -Topeka Convention. 

1856. President Pierce's proclamation on the state of affairs in 

Kansas, February. 

James Buchanan elected President of the United States, 

and John C. Breckinridge, Vice-President, November. 

1857. President Buchanan inaugurated. 

Franco-English expedition to China. 

1858. Franco-Spanish expedition to Cochin-China. 

Corner-stone of St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York, laid. 

1859. Italian war. 

Battle of Magenta. 

Battle of Solferino. 

1860. Italian revolution. 

Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of Italy. 

Battle of Castelfidardo. 

Bombardment of Ancona. 

Capture of Gaeta. 

Capture of Pekin by the French and English. 

Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States. 

• 1861. Civil War in the United States. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 581 

A. D. 

18G1. French, English, and Spanish joint expedition against 
Mexico. 

The Southern States secede. 

Attack on Fort Sumter, April 12. 

Battle of Great Bethel. 

Battle of Manassas. 

1862. Surrender of Fort Donelson. 

Battles of Shiloh. 

Capture of New Orleans. 

Siege of Yorktown. 

Battle of Seven Pines. 

Battle of Beaver's Dam. 

Battle of Gaines' Mill. 

Battle of Savage Station. 

Battle of Frazier's Hill. 

Battle of Malvern Hill. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff. 

Second battle of Manassas. 

Battle of Antietam. 

Battle of Fredericksburg. 

Battle of Murfreesboro. 

1863. Battle of Chancellorsville. 

Battle of Gettysburg. 

Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. 

The French enter the city of Mexico. 

The Mexican notables vote for an Empire. 

War in Schleswig-Holstein. 

1864. Maximilian, of Austria, Emperor of Mexico. 

Siege of Petersburg ; advance on Richmond. 

General Sherman crosses the State of Georgia. 

Capture of Atlanta and Savannah. 

Reelection of President Lincoln. 

Evacuation of Charleston. 

1865. Battle of Five Forks. 

Surrender of General Lee. 

End of the civil war. 

Abolition of Slavery. 

Assassination of President Lincoln. 

Vice-President Andrew Johnson succeeds Lincoln. 

1866. War between Prussia and Italy and Austria. 

Battle of Custozza. 

Naval battle off Ancona. 

Battle of Sadowa. 

1867. Overthrow of the Mexican Empire. 

Capture and execution of the Emperor Maximilian. 

1869. General Council of the Yatican at Rome. 

Ulysses S. Grant becomes President of the United States. 

1870. Franco-Prussian war begins. 

Battle of Sedan, and surrender of Napoleon IIL 

Siege of Paris. 

The Italian troops enter Rome. 

49* 



582 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 

End of the Franco-Prussian war. 
Thiers President of the French Kepublic. 

The German Empire reestabUshed. 

1872. General Grant reelected to the Presidency. 

1873. Marshal MacMahon, President of the French Kepublic. 
1875. Archbishop McCloskey, of New York, created Cardinal. 
187(3. Centennial year of American Independence. 

Great International Exhibition at Philadelphia. 

1877. Rutherford B. Hayes, President of the United States. 

Russia declares war against Turkey. 

Siege and capture of Plevna. 

1878. End of the Turco-Russian conflict. 

Death of Pius IX., and election of Leo XIII. 

1879. Jules Gr(^vy, President of France. 

St. Patrick's Cathedral, Kew York, dedicated to Divine 

worship. 

Famine in Ireland. 

1880. Cologne cathedral, Germany, completed. 

James A. Garfield elected President of the United States. 

Population of the United States, 50,152,866, 



appe:^dix 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

In Congress, July 4:th, ITTG. 
TTie Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. 

"When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands Avhich have connected 
them with another, and to assume, among; the powers of the earth, 
the separate and equal station to which the laws of Nature and of 
Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
kind requires that they should declare the causes w^hich impel them 
to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalien- 
able rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
erned ; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive 
of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and 
to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such prin- 
ciples, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, 
indeed, will dictate, that governments long estabhshed should not 
be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all ex- 
perience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer 
while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing 
the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train 
of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient 
sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which 
constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The 
history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated 
injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establish- 
ment of an absolute tyranny over these States, To prove this, let 
facts be submitted to a candid world : 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

583 



584 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation, till his 
assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly- 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature, — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- 
comfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his 
measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise ; 
the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers 
of invasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and 
raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone, for the tenure 
of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
of officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies without 
the consent of our legislatures. 

He has afl:ected to render the military independent of, and supe- 
rior to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops amongst us: 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
States: 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent : 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended 
offences: 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit in- 
strument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments : 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 685 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
began with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled 
in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a 
civihzed nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has en- 
deavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress 
in the most humble terms : our repeated petitions have been an- 
swered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus 
marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their 
legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
have reminded them of the circumstances of our migration and set- 
tlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and mag- 
nanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common 
kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably inter- 
rupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf 
to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold 
them, as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war; in peace, 
friends. 

WE, therefore, the representatives of THE UNITED STATES 
OF AMERICA, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the 
Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, 
in the niime and by the authority of the good people of these colo- 
nies, solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, 
and of right ought to be, FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; 
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, 
and that all political connection between them and the State of 
Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as 
free and independent States, they have full power to levy war, con- 
clude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all 
other acts and things which independent States may of right do. 
And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the 
protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

(Signed) JOHN HANCOCK. 



686 



THE CONSTITUTION OF 



Neio Hampshire. 
JOSIAH BARTLETT, 
WILLIAM WHIPPLE. 
MATTHEW THORNTON. 

Massachusetts Bay. 

SAMUEL ADAMS, 
JOHN ADAMS, 
ROBERT TREAT PAYNE, 
ELBRIDGE GERRY. 

Rhode Island, &c. 

STEPHEN HOPKINS, 
WILLIAM ELLERY. 

Connecticut. 

ROGER SHERMAN, 
SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, 
WILLIAM WILLIAMS, 
OLIVER WOLCOTT. 

Neiv York. 

WILLIAM FLOYD, 
PHILIP LIVINGSTON, 
FRANCIS LEWIS, 
LEWIS MORRIS. 



Nein Jersey. 

RICHARD STOCKTON, 
JOHN WITHERSPOON, 
FRANCIS HOPKINSON, 
JOHN HART. 
ABRAHAM CLARKE. 

Pennsylvania. 

ROBERT MORRIS, 
BENJAMIN RUSH, 
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, 
JOHN MORTON, 
GEORGE CLYMER, 



JAMES SMITH, 
GEORGE TAYLOR. 
JxVMES WILSON, 
GEORGE ROSS. 

Delaivare. 
C^SAR RODNEY, 
GEORGE READ, 
THOMAS McKEAN. 

Maryland. 
-SAMUEL CHASE, 
WILLIAM PACA, 
THOMAS STONE. 
CHARLES CARROLL, 

of Carrollton. 
Virginia. 

GEORGE WYTHE, 
RICHARD HENRY LEE, 
THOMAS JEFFERSON, 
BENJAMIN HARRISON, 
THOMAS NELSON, Jr., 
FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE, 
CARTER BRAXTON. 

North Carolina. 

WILLIAM HOOPER, 
JOSEPH HEWES, 
JOHN PENN. 

South Carolina. 

EDWARD RUTLEDGE, 
THOMAS HEY WARD, JR., 
THOMAS LYNCH, Jr., 
ARTHUR MIDDLETON. 

Georgia. 
BURTON GWINNETT, 
LYMAN HALL, 
GEORGE WALTON. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 

PREAMBLE. 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- 
fect union, estabhsh justice, insure domestic tranquillitj', provide for 
the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the 
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 



THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. 

ARTICLE I.— SECTION I. 

All legislative powers herein granted, shall be vested in a Con- 
gress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

SECTION II. 

1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several States; and 



THE UNITED STATES. 587 

the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have at- 
tained to the age of twenty -five years, and been seven years a citi- 
zen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 
inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, accord- 
ing to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by add- 
ing to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made 
within the three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the 
United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in 
such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of repre- 
sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each 
State shall have at least one representative, and until such enumera- 
tion shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to 
choose three; Massachusetts^ eight; Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations, one; Connecticut, ^ve; New York, six; New Jersey ,io\\Y; 
Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; 
North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill up 
such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and 
other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

SECTION III. 

1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six 
years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 

2. Lmnediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into 
three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be 
vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at 
the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the ex- 
piration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every 
second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, 
during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive 
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting 
of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to 
the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that 
State for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of 
the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a presi- 
dent pro-tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he 
shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 



588 THE CONSTITUTION OF 

6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
"When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concur- 
rence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualiiication to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the 
party convicted shall nevertheless be hable and subject to indict- 
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. ^^^ 

SECTION IV. 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators 
and representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- 
ture thereof; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
shall by law appoint a different day. 

SECTION V. 

1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
stitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn 
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance 
of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each 
House may provide. 

2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, pun- 
ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence 
of two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members 
of either House, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of 
those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without 
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to 
any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 

SECTION VI. 

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation 
for their serNaces, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except 
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest 
during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, 
and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or 
debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other 
place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which 
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority 
of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- 



THE UNITED STATES. 589 

merits whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no 
person holding any office under the United States shall be a mem- 
ber of either House during his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII. 

1. All bills for raising revenues shall originate in the House of 
Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments, as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa- 
tives and the Senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to 
the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; 
but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in 
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large 
on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such recon- 
sideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it 
shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by 
which it shall hkewise be reconsidered, and, if approved by two- 
thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases, 
the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and 
the names of the persons voting for and against the bill, shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall 
not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law 
in hke manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their 
adjournment, prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except 
on a question of adjournment), shall be presented to the President 
of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall 
be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed 
by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord- 
ing to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION VIII. 

The Congress shall have power — 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises ; to pay 
the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare 
of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises, shall be 
uniform throughout the United States ; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes ; 

4. To estabhsh a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States: 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and to fix the standard of weights and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States ; 

7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur- 

50 



590 THE CONSTITUTION OF 

ing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right 
to their respective writings and discoveries ; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; to define 
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and 
offences against the law of nations ; 

10. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

11. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money 
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

12. To provide and maintain a navy; 

13. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces ; 

14. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws 
of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

15. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mil- 
itia, and for governing such parts of them as may be employed in 
the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, 
the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

16. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over 
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of 
particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat 
of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority 
over all places purchased, by the consent of the Legislature of the 
State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 
zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings ; and, 

17. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, 
or in any department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX. 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be pro- 
hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hun- 
dred and eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such impor- 
tation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public 
safety may require it. 

3. N'o bill of attainder, or ex-post-facto law, shall be passed. 

4r. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be 
taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue, to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor 
shall vessels bound to or from one State, be obliged to enter, clear, 
or pay duties in another. 

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account 



THE UNITED STATES. 691 

of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub- 
lished from time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and 
no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, 
without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolu- 
ment, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, 
or foreign state. 

SECTION X. 

1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; 
grant letters of marque or reprisal ; coin money; emit bills of credit ; 
make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-facto law, or law impair- 
ing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the neat 
produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or 
exports, shall be for the treasury of the United States, and all such 
laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty 
of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into 
any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such immi- 
nent danger as will not admit of delay. 



THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 

ARTICLE II.— SECTION I. 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same 
terra, be elected as follows : 

2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole num- 
ber of senators and representatives to which the State may be en- 
titled in the Congress; but no* senator or representative, or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be 
appointed an elector. 

3. * [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhab- 
itant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a 
list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; 
which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
of the government of the United States, directed to the President 
of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, 
and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the great- 

* This clause has been annulled and superseded by the Twelfth Amendment^ 
on page 597. 



692 THE CONSTITUTION OF 

est number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a ma- 
jority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be 
more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number 
of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose, 
by ballot, one of them for President; and if no person have a major- 
ity, then, from the five highest on the list, the said House shall, in 
like manner, choose the President. But, in choosing the President, 
the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State 
having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem- 
ber or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all 
the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the 
choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of 
votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should 
remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
from them, by ballot, the A'^ice-President. 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall 
be the same throughout the United States. 

5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be 
eligible to that office, who shall not have attained to the age of thirty- 
five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of 
the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the 
Congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resig- 
nation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, de- 
claring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer 
shall act accordingly, ufttil the disability be removed, or a President 
shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished dur- 
ing the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
receive within that period any other emolument from the United 
States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: 

9. "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of the President of the United States, and will, to the best 
of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the 
United States." 

SECTION IL 

1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, 
when called into the actual service of the United States; he may 
require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of 
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties 
of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant re- 
prieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except 
in cases of impeachment. 



THE UNITED STATES. 593 

2. He sball have power, by and with tlie advice and consent of 
the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators 
present concur; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice 
and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other 
officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. 
But the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior 
officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commis- 
sions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III. 

1. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration 
such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient : he may, 
on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, 
and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time 
of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think 
proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; 
he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall 
commission all the officers of the United States. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and con- 
viction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT. 

ARTICLE III.— SECTION I. 

1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, 
from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the 
Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
behavior; and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a 
compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continu- 
ance in office. 

SECTION II, 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity 
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and 
treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to 
all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to 
which the United States shall be a pai'ty ; to controversies between 
two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; 
between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same 
State claiming lands under grants of different States ; and between 
a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 
50* 2N 



594 THE CONSTITUTION OF 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme 
Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, 
both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such reg- 
ulations, as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
be by jury, and such trial shall be held in the State where the said 
crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed in any 
State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may 
by law have directed. 

SECTION III. 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid 
and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession 
in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, 
or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 



MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS. 

ARTICLE IV.-SECTION I. 

1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And 
the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
thereof. 

SECTION II. 

1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and 
immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which 
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having juris- 
diction of the crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one State under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or 
regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor ; but 
shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service 
or labor may be due. 

SECTION III. 

1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; 
but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction 
of any other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two 
or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the Legis- 
latures of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other prop- 



THE UNITED STATES. 595 

erty belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitu- 
tion shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
States, or of any particular State. 

SECTION IV. 

1. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the ex- 
ecutive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic 
violence. 

POWERS OF AMENDMENT. 

ARTICLE V. 

1. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem 
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution ; or, on 
the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, 
shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either 
case, shall be vahd to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con- 
stitution, when ratiHed by the legislatures of three-fourths of the 
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the 
one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Con- 
gress; provided, that no amendment which may be made prior to 
the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall in any manner 
affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first 
article : and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of 
its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

PUBLIC DEBT, SUPREMACY OP THE CONSTITU- 
TION, OATH OF OFFICE, RELIGIOUS TEST. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. 

2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States, which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which 
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the 
supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State shall be 
bound thereby ; anything in the constitution or laws of any State 
to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, 
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; 
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any 
office or public trust under the United States. 



696 



THE CONSTITUTION OF 



RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION. 



ARTICLE VII. 

1. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suf- 
ficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States 
so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States pres- 
ent, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord 
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Inde- 
pendence of the United States of America the twelfth. In wit- 
ness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
President^ and Deputy from Virginia. 



New Hampshire. 
JOHN LANGDON, 
NICHOLAS GILMAN. 

Massachusetts. 
NATHANIEL GORHAM, 
RUFUS KING. 

Connecticut. 

WM. SAMUEL JOHNSON, 
ROGER SHERMAN. 

Neiv York. 
ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 

New Jersey. 
WM. LIVINGSTON, 
DAVID BREARLY, 
WM. PATTERSON, 
JONATHAN DAYTON. 

Pennsylvania. 

benjamin franklin, 
thomas mifflin, 
robert morris, 
gp:orge clymer, 
thomas fitzsimons, 

JARED INGERSOLL, 

james wilson, 
gouverneur morris. 

Attest: 



Delaware. 
GEORGE READ. 
GUNNING BEDFORD, Jr., 
JOHN DICKENSON, 
RICHARD BASSETT, 
JACOB BROOM. 

Maryland. 

JAMES McHENRY, 

DANIEL, of St. Thomas Jenifer. 

DANIEL CARROLL. 

Virginia. 
JOHN BLAIR, 
JAMES MADISON, Jr. 

North Carolina. 
WM. BLOUNT. 

RICHARD DOBBS SPRAIGHT, 
HUGH WILLIAMSON. 

South Carolina. 
JOHN RUTLEDGE. 
C. COTESWORTH PINKNEY, 
CHARLES PINKNEY, 
PIERCE BUTLER. 

Oeorgia. 
WILLIAM FEW, 
ABRAHAM BALDWIN. ' 

WM. JACKSON, 

Secretai^.* 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 

Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridg- 
ing the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people 
peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress 
of grievances. 

Art. II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security 



* Rhode Island did not accept the Constitution until May, 1790. 



THE UNITED STATES. 697 

of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms sliall 
not be infringed. 

Aet. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any 
house without the consent of the owner; nor in time of war, but 
in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, 
houses, papers, and eifects, against unreasonable searches and seiz- 
ures, shall not be violated ; and no warrant shall issue but upon 
probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be 
seized. 

Art. Y. '^o person shall be held to answer for a capital or other- 
wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a 
grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in 
the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or i)ublic danger ; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put 
in jeopardy of life or hmb, nor shall be compelled, in any criminal 
case, to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

xVrt. VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the 
right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State 
and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted 
with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for 
obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to haVe the assistance of coun- 
sel for his defence. 

Art. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in contro- 
versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be 
preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined 
in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the 
common law. 

Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive 
fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Art. IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, 
shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the 
people. 

Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the 
Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the 
States respectively, or to the people. 

Art. XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be 
construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or 
prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another 
State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

METHOD OF ELECTING A PRESIDENT.* 

Art, XIL, § 1. The electors shall meet in their respective States, 
arid vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom 

* Proposed by Congress and declared adopted in 1804. 



598 THE CONSTITUTION OF 

at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with them- 
selves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as 
President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-Presi- 
dent ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the 
number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, 
and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President of 
the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for Presi- 
dent, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
majority, then from the persons having tlie highest numbers, not 
exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall clioose immediately, by ballot, the 
President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken 
by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a 
quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from 
two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be 
necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall 
not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-Presi- 
dent, shall be the Vice-President^ if such number be a majority of 
the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a 
majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate 
shall choose the Vice-President: a quorum for the purpose shall 
consist of two-tliirds of the whole number of Senators, and a ma- 
jority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- 
dent, shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

SLAVERY AND CIVIL RIGHTS. 

Art. XIII.*— Sec. 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have 
been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any 
place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
propriate legislation. 

Art. XlV.t— Sec. 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall 
make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or im- 
munities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive 
any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; 

* Deolared adopted, December, 1S65. f Declared adopted, July, 1868, 



THE UNITED STATES. 599 

nor deny to any person witliin its jurisdiction the equal protection 
of the kiws. 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several 
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed ; but 
when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives 
in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the 
members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male 
inhabitants of such State (being twenty-one years of age and citi- 
zens of the United States), or in any way abridged, except for par- 
ticipation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation 
therein shall be reduced to the proportion which the number of 
such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in said State. 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
gress, or Elector, or President, or Vice-President, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legisla- 
ture, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support 
the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insur- 
rection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the 
enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each 
House, remove such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, au- 
thorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties, for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, 
shall not be questioned; but neither the United States nor any 
State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of 
insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for 
the loss or emancipation of any slave. But all such debts, obliga- 
tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

Art. XV.* — Sec. 1. The right of the citizens of the United States 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by 
any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of sei vi- 
tude. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

«- Declared adopted, March, 1870. 

The End. 



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